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THE 



TRIBES OF THE CAUCASUS. 



WITH AN ACCOUNT OF 



SCHAMYL AND THE MURIDS. 



BY 

BARON AUGUST VON HAXTHAUSEN. 

AUTHOR OF 1 TRANSCAUCASIA,' ' THE RUSSIAN EMPIRE,' ETC. 



LONDON : 

CHAPMAN AND HALL, 193, PICCADILLY. 
1855. 



TTk* Siaht nf 7V,/ 



printed by 
john edw4rd taylor, little queen" street, 
Lincoln's inn fields. 



PREFACE. 



The manuscript of the following Work has been 
kindly sent to me by Baron Haxthausen, since the 
publication of his larger work on Transcaucasia, 
to which it may be considered a supplement. The 
interest and importance attached to the present 
state of these countries induce me to translate 
and offer the book to the English Public. The 
Author's name and reputation are a sufficient 
introduction, and guarantee of the correctness of 
his statements. Whether the reader accepts, or 
dissents from, his views, he must acknowledge 
that they spring from the convictions of an en- 
lightened observer, and a high-minded and con- 
scientious writer. 

J. E. TATLOE. 

London, September 25th, 1855. 



CONTENTS, 



CHAPTEE I. 

PAGE 

Early Legends. — The Ark. — Limit of Civilization. — Mo- 
hammed's Prophecy. — G-og and Magog. — Steppes.— 
Agricultural and Pastoral Races 1 



CHAPTEE II. 

Geographical Features. — Rivers and Mountains. — Natu- 
ral Character of the Country. — Extent and Popula- 
tion. — Yariety of Races and Languages, Circassian, 
Abkhasian, Ossetian. — Eastern and Southern Trans- 
caucasia 9 



CHAPTER III. 

Early History. — Races. — Countries bordering the Cas- 
pian Sea. — The Ancient Iran. — Magi. — Zal and Roos- 
tern — Eire-worship. — Baku,— Peter L— Exploring Ex- 



CONTENTS, 



p editions, — OrnruzcL — Islamism. — Timiir. — Eussian 
Government. — Eock-caves. — Trade of the Easto — Chi- 
nese Colonists. — Symbol of the Dragon.— European 
Factories on the Caspian.— -Armenian Traders. — De- 
scendants of the Ten Lost Tribes.— Variety of Trading 
Nations. — Western Caucasus. —Colchis. — Dioscurias. 
—Georgia,— The Iberians .......... 20 

CHAPTEE IV, 

Importance of these Countries.— Wars of Persia and 
Turkey.™ Decline of Mohammedanism .—Progress of 
Eussia. — Her Diplomatic Skill.— Military Frontier.— 
Obstacles to Eussia's Designs.— Position of England. 
—Circassians,— Conjectures on the Present Crisis . . 35 

CHAPTEE V, 

Ormuzd and Ahriman. — Legend of Iran and Turan.— 
Dulkarnein. — Great Wall of the Caucasus. — Eomans 
and Persians.— Khosru Anushirvan. — City of Derbent 44 

CHAPTEE VI. 

The Sassanides.— Military Colonies.— Principalities.— 
Serir.— Genghis Khan.™ The Scham Khal .... 57 

CHAPTEE VII. 

The Caucasus.— Shahs of Persia.— Advance of Eussia, 
—Political Position of Caucasia.— Mountaineers,— 



CONTENTS. 



Vll 



Georgia and Armenia. — Tatars and Persians. — Nume- 
rous Eaces. — Policy of Eussia. — Trade with the Cir- 
cassians. — Introduction of Christianity. — Muridism . 62 

CHAPTEE VIII. 

The Murids. — Strict Mohammedans. — The Sultan.— 
Origin of Muridism. — Mosque at Jarach. — Moollah 
Mohammed. — His Character and Position. — Preaches 
War. — Kazi Mohammed. — Anecdote of Hadji Ismael. 
— The Kazamet 72 



CHAPTEE IX. 

Opposition to Muridism. — The Kazamet. — Disturbances 
in the Eussian Provinces. — Arslan Khan. — His Inter- 
view with Moollah Mohammed. — War between Per- 
sia and Turkey. — Khan of Avaria. — Kazi Moollah . . 85 



CHAPTEE X. 

Death of Kazi Moollah. — Renewed Fervour of the Mu- 
rids. — Gamzad Beg chosen Commander. — His Over- 
tures to the Khan of Avaria. — Treacherous Conduct 
of Ghamzad. — Death of the Khan. — Schamyl chosen 
Leader 96 

CHAPTEE XI. 

Imam Schamyl. — His Person and Character. — Defeat of 
the Eussians.' — His Extraordinary Escapes. — Scha- 
myl's Influence over the Murids. — Campaigns of 1839- 
1843.— Generals Grabbe and Golovin 106 



VIU 



CONTENTS. 



CHAPTER XIL 

PAGE 

Civil and Military Organization. — Reforms in Turkey, 
Persia, and Egypt. — Mehemet Ali.— -European Diplo- 
macy. — Schamyl's Policy. — His pretended Inspiration. 
—Blood Revenge. — Code of Laws. — Steps to Paradise. 

— JNaibs. — Murtosigators . . . . . . . . . .117 



THE 



TRIBES Of THE CAUCASUS. 



CHAPTER I. 

EAELY LEGENDS. — THE AEK. — LIMIT OF CIVILIZATION. — MO- 
HAMMED'S PEOPHECY. — GOG AND MAGOG. — STEPPES. — AGEI- 
CULTUEAL AND PASTOEAL EACES. 

The Caucasus, the highest mountain-range in 
the civilized world in ancient times, presents 
features of incalculable importance and interest, 
both internally and with relation to the history 
of mankind at large. More than ever perhaps 
at the present moment, when in the East the 
armed might of Russia and of the Western 
Allied Powers are engaged in a war of such 
momentous importance and extent, it is not 
improbable that these countries, of which we 
propose to treat in the following pages, may 
form a central point in the history of the world, 
on which may hang the destinies of the future, 

B 



2 



TRIBES OF THE CAUCASUS. 



pregnant with events and changes that may 
baffle all anticipation and conjecture. 

In ancient times the tribes of Western Asia 
and Europe, dwelling at the foot of these moun- 
tains, looked up with wondering gaze to those 
snowy summits, never trodden by the foot of 
man, which, in their eyes, formed the limit of ci- 
vilization, and beyond which dwelt those hordes 
of barbarians, without name or history, the Scy- 
thians and Hyperboreans. 

With these mountains were naturally associated 
the oldest popular legends and mythes. When 
the race of the Divs and Jinns, which inhabited 
the world before the creation of man, alienated 
themselves from the Deity, they were banished 
to the Caucasus, where it is supposed they still 
dwell in their ice-palaces, under their king, the 
Padishah of the Jinns, who holds his court in 
the Elbrouz, " the resplendent, holy, blest moun- 
tain/' 

On the other hand, the Grecian mythology 
informs us, that when Prometheus stole the fire 
from heaven for man, Zeus, as a punishment, 
chained him to the rocks of the Caucasus. 

Another legend, which still survives, relates 
that, when the Deluge abated, the Caucasus first 



EARLY LEGENDS. 



3 



appeared above the waters : here the Ark first 
landed, on the highest summit of the Elbrouz, 
making a cleft in it which is still visible ; but the 
story goes on to say, that the Ark again floated 
further, and finally landed on Ararat. 

There is however another legend, of high im- 
portance, especially at the present time, as its 
belief exerts a mysterious and magical influence 
on the coming crisis of the world's history. 
We have said that the Caucasus was regarded 
as the limit of the ancient civilized world. The 
barbarous hordes of the North had, even within 
the times of history, repeatedly forced a way 
through this mountain barrier, and swept over 
the civilized countries with the sword of con- 
quest. Against these irruptions the monarchs in 
early times erected an immense wall, with towers 
and two strong gates, — a defence similar to the 
great wall of China. 

This well-known fact in history caused Mo- 
hammed to deliver a prophecy, which in the pre- 
sent moment contributes mainly to stir up all the 
Mohammedan races against the dwellers beyond 
and north of the Caucasus, and to inflame them 
with the most ardent fanaticism. Mohammed 
says in the Koran, " Beyond the Caucasus dwell 

b 2 



4 



TRIBES OF THE CAUCASUS. 



Gog and Magog : one day, when the full time is 
come, they will pass the mountains, and will slay 
the Faithful, and destroy the blest realm of the 
Believers/'* 

Before considering specially the political and 
religious position of these countries at the pre- 
sent day, we shall first take a general survey of 
them and their inhabitants. 

To the north of the Caucasus, between the 

* The Bible makes mention of Magog in several places : 
first in Genesis x. 2, where the genealogy of the human race 
is given : Magog is there called the second son of Japheth. 
This genealogy is repeated in 1 Chron. i. 5. Ezekiel (38 
and 39) foretells that Gog, the prince in the land of Magog, 
will come from the north, and subdue the land of the Lord ; 
but that there his grave will be prepared. Lastly the Re- 
velations (xx. 7-9) prophesy that, after a dominion of a 
thousand years, Satan will gather Gog and Magog, numerous 
as the sands of the sea, and surround the camp of the saints, 
but that fire from heaven will destroy them. 

The abode of Magog is supposed to be found in the country 
about the Palus Mseotica, which thence may take its name ; 
and the prophecy of Ezekiel has been referred to the great ir- 
ruption of the Scythians through the Caucasus, B.C. 633, when 
they devastated Asia, and ruled it for twenty-eight years, and 
found their graves in Syria. 

Mohammed seems to have taken his prophecy from Ezekiel 
and the Revelations ; but instead of foretelling, in accordance 
with the Bible, the final overthrow of Magog, he prophesied 
the destruction of the empire of the Faithful. 



STEPPES. 



5 



Black Sea, or its continuation the Sea of Azof, 
and the Caspian, and north of both, extends an 
immense barren Steppe, the greater part of which, 
between the Sea of Azof and the Caspian, is of a 
salt character. On digging but a few feet into 
the earth, salt water rises. Possibly we may 
trace on the map, from this circumstance, the 
junction of the two Seas in one, in prehistoric 
times, perhaps before the Deluge. These plains 
admit only of cultivation along the banks of the 
rivers, the rest being abandoned to the roving 
nomads and their herds. * 

This Steppe forms only a portion of the vast 
plains which extend in an uninterrupted line 
from the Carpathian and Silesian mountains — 
we may even say from Normandy — to the China 
Sea, and may perhaps have been an immense 
ocean before the Deluge, separating that portion 
of the earth inhabited by the race of Adam from 
the northern zone. 

Through all times of history these plains have 
been the heritage and country of nomadic peo- 
ples. From the very origin of the human race, in 
the story of Cain and Abel, we observe the two- 

* " Nulla est silva, nulla mons, nullus lapis," is the mourn- 
ful expression of Ovid. 



6 



TRIBES OE THE CAUCASUS. 



fold leading directions of man's life — agriculture, 
and pastoral occupation ; and in a corresponding 
manner the formation of the earth itself pre- 
sents, in its varied local features, the inducements 
which in general determine these directions. High 
mountains, and wide barren plains, are the na- 
tural basis of pastoral life, whilst the fertile cen- 
tral lands invite and foster the pursuits of agri- 
culture. 

We observe usually on the earth's surface 
these lines of demarcation everywhere running 
near to, and intersecting, one another, — fertile, 
arable soil, and pasture-land intermingled, both 
in large and small extent ; nevertheless in parts 
immense tracts of country, thousands of square 
miles (as for instance in Arabia) are adapted by 
nature only for pasture. 

Thus, whilst in all parts of the world, among 
its various inhabitants, we see one portion devo- 
ting themselves* to the labours of the field, and 

# We expressly use the word devote : mankind is ruled in 
the choice of forms of life, by inner, deep and secret laws — 
laws of nature, but not of a fatalist nature. Man has the 
free exercise of his will, especially in those matters appertain- 
ing to his mode of life ; but he is influenced by sympathy, 
feeling, and habits. Nations, like individuals, follow similar 
laws of choice and guidance. In Adam were united the basis of 



PASTORAL LIFE. 



7 



the other to the occupations of pastoral life, this 
presents the significant fact, of one great section 
of mankind standing opposed in views and modes 
of life to another. 

We differ from the opinion that the pastoral 
was the older or primitive mode of life, and 
that the social life connected with agriculture 
sprang from it : the two forms are equally old 
and original, ordained by God. As individuals, 
so likewise large bodies of men, have passed from 
one mode of life to the other. Shepherds and no- 
madic tribes have occasionally adopted a settled 
dwelling, whilst agricultural people have, although 

both these forms of life, agricultural and pastoral ; whilst in his 
sons Cain and Abel they were strikingly contrasted, even to a 
distinction in worship and sacrifice. The fundamental dualism 
of the human race was herein prefigured and instituted : 
thenceforth it was divided into the two classes of the husband- 
men and nomads. "Which is the nobler form, who can decide ? 
If the higher outward forms of cultivation belong to the agri- 
cultural class, who can tell, on the other hand, those inner 
feelings, the effect of contemplation or of intuition, resulting 
from an intimate communion with nature, which the nomadic 
class peculiarly possess? At present the agricultural races 
occupy a higher position than the pastoral, for no nomadic 
people have hitherto embraced Christianity permanently. The 
herdsmen of the Alps are not properly a nomadic people ; al- 
though their pursuits are pastoral, they have a settled mode 
of life : they form the transition between the two states. 



8 



TRIBES OF THE CAUCASUS. 



more rarely, exchanged their pursuits for a no- 
madic life. Nevertheless the nomad races in 
general, as a body, have never abandoned their 
pastoral life, — not indeed because the soil they 
inhabited may have been wholly unfitted for til- 
lage, but because the laws of nature have im- 
planted in the spirit of these peoples an inalien- 
able attachment to this mode of life, as of neces- 
sity. The Arabs and Mongols have been nomads 
for thousands of years, and will remain so to the 
end of the world : and the Turks, to the present 
day, have never been an agricultural people, but 
live, especially in Europe, as in the field or camp. 



9 



CHAPTER II. 

GEOGRAPHICAL FEATURES. — RIVERS AND MOUNTAINS. — NA- 
TURAL CHARACTER OF THE COUNTRY. — EXTENT AND POPU- 
LATION. — VARIETY OF RACES AND LANGUAGES, CIRCASSIAN, 
ABKHASIAN, OSSETIAN. — EASTERN AND SOUTHERN TRANS- 
CAUCASIA. 

We shall now return from our digression, the 
peculiar bearing of which will be explained here- 
after, to the geographical position of the Caucasus, 
and the Asiatic countries beyond it. On the north, 
as we have remarked, extend those vast plains, 
traversed almost solely by nomadic tribes. Along 
the entire northern line of the Caucasus, a luxu- 
riant vegetation appears, contrasting with this 
more northern salt Steppe. From the centre of 
the Caucasian range issue two large rivers, not 
far distant from one another, which soon take 
opposite directions. The Kouban (the Hypanis 
of the Ancients), rising at the foot of the Elbrouz, 
flows west into the Sea of Azof; and the Terek, 

b 3 



10 



TRIBES OE THE CAUCASUS. 



rising in Mount Kasbek, flows eastward, and 
empties into the Caspian Sea. Both rivers re- 
ceive in their course a number of small tribu- 
taries, and run through extensive marshes, lined 
with impenetrable banks of tree-like reeds. The 
country in the foreground of the Caucasus, com- 
prising its spurs, and the fluvial valleys from 
eighty to a hundred miles wide, is throughout 
fertile, but thinly peopled. 

The entire length of the mountain -range, from 
the Black Sea, opposite to the Crimea, as far as 
Baku, may be about 750 miles. Rising steeply 
on the east, and descending gradually in the 
west, the mountains lie mostly in a direction 
north-west and south-east. They form two pa- 
rallel chains, the southern one of which (" the 
Black Mountains") does not rise to the limit of 
the snow-line ; whilst the northern range (" the 
White Mountains") rises everywhere from 10,000 
to 14,000 feet above the level of the sea ; some 
mountains, as the Elbrouz, attaining a height of 
more than 18,000 feet, and the Kasbek above 
16,000. On the side open to the Steppes, the 
loftiest summits are visible at an immense dis- 
tance, as far as Sarepta on the Volga, three hun- 
dred miles. The mountain-range consists of a 



GEOGRAPHICAL FEATURES. 



11 



series of rounded summits with few intervals be- 
tween them ; whilst the line of glaciers, rising 
in the centre, forms an almost impassable and 
continuous line of wall with dentated summits, 
the acclivities being clothed, down to the valleys, 
with impervious forests. Numerous rapid moun- 
tain-streams wind through the narrow valleys, 
but there are no other rivers or lakes of any im- 
portance.* 

The Caucasus forms the line of demarcation, 
separating Asia from Europe, and marking at the 
same time certain boundaries in the vegetable 
and animal kingdoms. Here for instance is the 
limit of the countries where the jackal is found, 

* It is necessary to be clearly acquainted with these natural 
features of the country, to understand correctly the political 
importance of the Caucasus, and the character of the present 
war in those parts. In confirmation of my own observations, 
I quote the description given by another traveller. " In the 
background of the Steppes rose in immeasurable rows the 
snowy giants of the Caucasus. Above the dark, wooded, pro- 
jecting spurs, these snowy mountains stood forth, in the most 
fanciful forms, — like columns, horns, tops, and pyramids. 
Such rugged and steep walls of rock and snow, such bold 
summits, as the giants of the central range of the Caucasus 
exhibit, are to be found neither in the Alps of Switzerland, 
the Taurus, Mount Atlas, the Balkan, the Apennines, nor any 
other mountains in Europe." (Der Caucasus, by M. Wagener, 
1848, p. 181.) 



12 



TRIBES OF THE CAUCASUS. 



— an animal which is not seen even in the ad- 
jacent Crimea, nor on European soil, within the 
same latitude. 

On the southern acclivity of the Caucasus lie 
the countries of Mingrelia, Georgia, and Gooria, 
richly gifted by nature. On the mountains is 
luxuriant pasture for cattle,— in the valleys, rich 
arable soil ; with magnificent forests, where the 
southern laurel grows beside the noble beech 
of the north, interlaced everywhere with vines, 
which have become indigenous to the soil, the 
dwelling of every description of game, and the 
native habitat of the pheasant. 

The eastern slopes and valleys are still grander 
and more beautiful. Who is a stranger to Shir- 
van, the theme of admiration to the Persian 
poets, the hallowed plains of the Koor (Cyrus) 
and Araxes, or again, the pasture-lands of Kara- 
bagh, which produced a race of horses scarcely 
inferior to the Arab ? Thence the country rises 
to the Koordish and Anatolian Alps, from the 
centre of which the majestic Ararat steps forth, 
16,000 feet in height, in solitary grandeur. Here 
also, in Armenia, the soil is remarkable for its 
fertility, from its artificial irrigation : the heights 
are bare, grey, and destitute of vegetation. 



GEOGRAPHICAL FEATURES. 



13 



Russian Transcaucasia, and the independent 
mountain districts, may together perhaps some- 
what exceed in extent the kingdom of Prussia, 
and be rather smaller than Great Britain and 
Ireland.* The free mountain territory forms the 
smaller half of the country ; the total population 
is estimated at less than four millions. If to this 
be added Ciscaucasia, the cultivated plains, and 
those capable of cultivation, north of the Cauca- 
sus, as far as the vast Steppes, comprising the 

* The following statistical account, if not precisely accu- 
rate, may suffice to afford general points of comparison. 

Transcaucasia . 66,550 sq. miles, with 2,150,000 inhab. 

The free MounO An ^ nr . i ~ n aaa 

tain districts! 46 '° 6 ° » " " 

Ciscaucasia . . 56,080 „ „ 620,000 „ 

Total, 169,190 square miles, and 4,320,000 inhabitants. 

Great Britain^ g2 ^ ^ 28 ,000,000 inhab. 
and Ireland ) 

The Kingdom^ 16,500,000 „ 

of Prussia J 

Gernmny(with-| ^ 17,000,000 „ 

out Prussia) ) 

Sweden .... 170,000 „ „ 3,200,000 „ 

Spain 182,000 „ „ 12,300,000 „ 

Belgium .... 11,330 „ „ 4,300,000 „ 

In the Caucasian countries the population on the square 
mile is only about 25 or 26 ; whilst in Belgium it is 380, 
and in England 332 ; in Germany, 180 ; in Sweden, only 
about 19. 



14 



TRIBES OE THE CAUCASUS. 



entire belt between the Black Sea and the Cas- 
pian, this country may be computed to contain 
from 150,000 to 170,000 square miles, with a 
population of four millions and a half. 

There is no country, of the same extent, which 
comprises such a variety of races, differing in 
origin, physiognomy, character, religion, manners 
and dress, as this. Probably indeed this may 
have been still more the case in remote times : 
if the accounts given by ancient writers appear 
exaggerated, that in the market at Dioscurias on 
the Black Sea more than three hundred peoples 
met and traded, yet Strabo mentions twenty- 
six languages in the eastern Caucasus alone, in 
Albania, where the Lesghians now dwell. The 
Arabian writers Ibn-Haukal and Masudi men- 
tion seventy-two languages, which were said to 
be spoken in the east, about Derbent, a perfect 
Babel of tongues. Abulfeda calls the moun- 
tain of the Albanian Gate c Djebel-il-Alason/ or 
' Mountain of Tongues/ To the present day, the 
peoples comprised under the name of Lesghians, 
who have a great resemblance in manners and 
customs, speak thirty different languages. 

The total number of languages spoken in these 
countries at the present day amounts to seventy ; 



LANGUAGES. 



15 



and, although it is improbable that these may all 
have been originally independent, it is remark- 
able that none of the inhabitants speaking them 
can understand the rest. Frequently four or five 
villages have a distinct language, wholly unintel- 
ligible to any other tribe. The following primitive 
languages, with their dialects, have a wider range. 

1. The Circassian, a primitive language, said 
to belong to the Finnish stem, branches out into 
a number of dialects ; thirty-two have been enu- 
merated, each spoken by a distinct people. The 
sixteen Circassian tribes, properly so called, are 
estimated to comprise a population of rather above 
500,000 ; the four Kabardian tribes number 
about 36,000 to 40,000 ; the twelve Abadian 
tribes, 110,000; making in all a population of 
about 700,000. 

2. The Abkhasian is said to be a primitive lan- 
guage, its connection with any others being quite 
unknown. The Abkhasians are divided into five 
tribes, numbering together a population of from 
45,000 to 50,000 souls. 

3. The Ossetian language is of Persian deri- 
vation. In a former work, on Transcaucasia, we 
have given an account of this remarkable Iranian 
Germanic people. The Ossetes are divided into 



16 



TRIBES OF THE CAUCASUS. 



sixteen tribes, scarcely numbering in all 40,000 
souls : they are settled in the heart of the Cau- 
casian mountains. 

4. The eastern portion of the Caucasus is 
inhabited by a very mixed population, of small 
tribes, who speak languages which differ materi- 
ally, but have not yet been sufficiently examined. 
It remains consequently uncertain which of them 
can be regarded as primitive languages, and which 
merely as dialects. About fifty-three tribes have 
been enumerated, among which the Tchetchens 
are divided into fourteen stems, numbering about 
200,000 heads. The thirty-six tribes comprised 
under the general name of Lesghians, which, al- 
though perfectly alike in character, manners, and 
costume, speak the most different languages, 
comprise a population of about 500,000. 

The eastern Caucasus is said to contain about 
800,000 inhabitants, but we must observe that 
these statistics are only approximate ; they may 
nevertheless serve to give a general idea of the 
political importance of this large extent of coun- 
try. 

The district south-east of the Caucasus, bor- 
dering the Caspian Sea, including about three 
hundred thousand square miles, and stretching to 



TATARS. 



17 



the frontiers of Persia into the provinces of Da- 
ghestan, Shirvan, etc., is inhabited by Tatars, with 
here and there isolated settlements of other peo- 
ples, — Persians, Chinese, Hindoos, etc. : there are 
few traces of the original Medio-Iranian popu- 
lation, who appear to have been lost among the 
Tatars.* On the other hand, the Tatars are 
found also scattered in the eastern districts of the 
Georgian tribes, in Kakhetia, etc. Russian statis- 
tical tables state their numbers to be 709,600. 
Whilst eastern Transcaucasia is inhabited by 

* The Tatars appear in history a semi-mythical people : 
they are unquestionably the basis of the population of Turan, 
the "night-land," the "night-people," contrasted with the 
"light-land," or Iran, of the legendary history of Persia, — a 
monarchy comprising many peoples, united by one and the 
same language. In modern history they appear a very power- 
ful race, under two names, — as Tatars, accompanying the 
great expeditions of the Mongols, and as Turks, who were 
first in the pay of the Saracens, and afterwards their con- 
querors, and the founders of a powerful empire. In speaking 
of Tatars, we do not now understand the term to apply to 
any primitive race or nation, but rather an aggregate of peo- 
ples speaking the same language. The JSTogai Tatars, for in- 
stance, are evidently of Mongol origin ; whilst those Tatars 
who inhabit the country from Derbent to Persia are of Cau- 
casian origin. The Turks perhaps belong originally to the 
Finnish race. The Tatar language is that of conversation 
in "Western Asia, Persia, and Turkey, like the French in 
Europe. 



18 



TRIBES OF THE CAUCASUS. 



the Tatar race, the whole of western Transcau- 
casia belongs to the Georgians. This nation 
occupies Georgia, Kakhetia, Imeretia, Mingrelia, 
Suanetia, and Gooria, with a population of 67 7,000 
souls, on 35,000 square miles: of these perhaps 
not more than 600,000 belong to the Georgian 
race, — the rest being Tatars, Armenians, Turks, 
Koords, Russians, Germans, and Jews. 

The southern portion of Transcaucasia, or 
Russian Armenia, 8200 square miles in extent, 
contains 164,500 inhabitants, including 110,000 
Armenians, the rest being Tatars, Koords, etc. 
Beside these, the Armenians are scattered over all 
these countries : their total number is stated to be 
nearly 300,000 * 

These are the principal nations inhabiting this 
large extent of country at the present day. Two 
of them only can boast a civilization and history 
which reach back many thousand years, as well 
as traditions which connect their origin directly 
with Holy Writ, and their genealogy with Noah 

# Koppen, the best Russian statist, estimated (before 1838) 
the male population to be 679,497,— with a total of 1,500,000 
souls. The Georgian male population was 182,431 ; the Ta- 
tars, 319,230 males; the Armenians, 147,303 males. The 
above number did not include the Mingrelians, Suanetians, 
and Goorians. 



ARMENIAN LITERATURE. 



19 



and the patriarchs of the human race. These are 
the Armenians and Georgians, who embraced 
Christianity at the beginning of the fourth cen- 
tury, and at a very early time possessed a writing 
and literature of their own, — the Armenian es- 
pecially rich. The other nations have no wri- 
ting or records of their history, the only account 
of their origin being derived from tradition and 
mythical sources : in fact, it is highly probable 
(as our own observation would lead us to infer) 
that a mine of legendary lore remains among 
these peoples still unexplored.* 

* See the works of Yon Koch, Wagener, Bodenstedt, and 
other travellers. Dubois, in his great work on the Caucasian 
countries, has directed his attention to matters of natural his- 
tory, more than to these ethnological subjects. 



20 



CHAPTER III. 

EARLY HISTOEY. — EACES. — COUNTEIES BOEDEEING THE CAS- 
PIAN SEA. — THE ANCIENT IEAN. — THE MAGI. — ZAL AND 
ROOSTEM. — EIEE-WOESHIP. — BAKU. — PETEE I. — EXPLOR- 
ING EXPEDITIONS. — OEMUZD. — ISLAMISM. — TIMUR. — RUS- 
SIAN GOVERNMENT. — EOCK-CAVES. — TEADE OE THE EAST. 
■ — CHINESE COLONISTS. — SYMBOL OE THE DEAGON. — EUEO- 
PEAN EACTOEIES ON THE CASPIAN. — ARMENIAN TEADEES. 
—DESCENDANTS OE THE TEN LOST TEIBES. — YAEIETY OE 
TEADING NATIONS* — *WESTEEN CAUCASUS. — COLCHIS. — DIOS- 
CUEIAS. — GEOEGIA.— THE IBEEIANS. 

At an early period these countries emerged from 
a mist of legendary history, and allusions to 
them are found in the oldest parts of the Bible. 
The ancient Persian legends and royal books 
speak of these countries, which are in a great 
measure the theatre of their principal national 
events. Here was the holy land of the Magi, 
the land likewise of the heroes Zal and Roos- 
tem. In Grecian mythology western Caucasia 



EARLY RACES. 



21 



was the scene of the Argonautic Expedition. 
Herodotus was acquainted with these countries, 
but there is a want of clearness in his descrip- 
tions of them, which is found also in almost all 
subsequent authors ; in fact a veil of obscurity 
shrouds this portion of the earth's surface. 

It is a remarkable fact that the names of scarce- 
ly any of the peoples mentioned by the ancients 
exist at the present day. The Armenians are the 
only nation who appear here in the records of all 
ages. The Georgians seem to be the Iberians ; 
the Lesghians, the Albanians (inhabitants of the 
Caucasian Alps).* The Circassians are probably 
the Zicchi of the ancients. 

In the remotest ages, before history and mythe 
were distinguished, the eastern countries along 
the Caspian Sea possessed great historical im- 
portance. Here was the cradle of the Persian 
monarchy, the true Iran in its limited sense ; 
for the name afterwards extended to all Persia. 
Here was the country, the scene of their actions, 
of the heroic race of Persia, of Zal and Roostem ; 
and even in the times of Peter I., the exploits of 

# See Hitter's Erdkunde. No writer gives a more admi- 
rable and detailed account of tke ethnographical, historical, 
and geographical features of these countries than Bitter. 



22 



TRIBES OF THE CAUCASUS. 



the Shah Nam eh were still handed down in the 
popular songs of the country. Probably a dili- 
gent research might still discover traces of them 
there. * 

In the midst of this land of heroes, Iran pro- 
per, lay the holy land of Mugon,f the country of 
the Median Magi. The soil is remarkably fer- 
tile ; Strabo says that a wooden plough only was 
required for its tillage, and that one sowing suf- 
ficed to yield two or three harvests. 

This hallowed and favoured country of the 
Magi was the cradle of the worship of Ormuzd, 

* Peter I. despatched several small expeditions from the 
Caspian Sea to explore these shores. In 1720, a vessel an- 
chored at the mouth of the Koor : the captain and crew were 
hospitably received by the prince, or Beg, of the country. 
On their departure he gave them an entertainment, at which 
popular songs were sung, reciting the praises of the great 
Shah Khosru Anushirvan the Just. The Beg then pro- 
nounced an encomium on the Emperor Peter, adding these 
words, so prophetic for Bussia, " Every seed brings forth 
its fruit in its own time." In this country, below Derbent, 
lies the city of Shah-berain (now Shabran), which is frequently 
mentioned in the Shah Nameh. The songs of Boostem tell 
of the river Didjelat (Araxes), where was the cavern in which 
the king and hero of Turan, Afrasiat, imprisoned the pious 
king Bidgiam, and closed the cave with a rock, whom Boos- 
tem liberated. 

f The present desert of Mogan recalls the name. 



FIRE-WORSHIP . 



23 



of that religion which ranked next to the true, 
primitive, and traditional religion of mankind, 
preserved and transmitted, although veiled, in 
Judaism, until God revealed Himself to the 
world in Christ. Here were the eternal and holy 
fires at Baku,* which issued from the ground in 
flames spontaneously, as it were the antitype of 
Mithras, the Sun, the symbol of Ormuzd. But 
mankind early fell off from this simple form of 
religion ; the symbol was converted into an idol, 
a carved image to which worship was addressed. 

* The sacred fires at Baku, of which we have given an ac- 
count in a former work on Transcaucasia, present one of the 
most wonderful spectacles in the world. After warm autumnal 
rains, the fires are visible in the evening, when in a short time 
all the fields around Baku, as far as the eye can reach, are 
covered with white flames. At times these flames roll in the 
distance down from the hills in broad masses ; but they are 
only meteoric, without heat or the power of inflaming. In a 
clear night these fires are seen playing on the plains, whilst 
the hills rise above them in dark forms. One while the flames 
move singly, at another they unite, waving to and fro with 
a continual movement, like spectral forms. At about four 
o'clock in the morning they disappear. In clear autumnal 
nights the plain is dark, but the summits of the hills are 
covered with an astonishing blue fire, particularly the sacred 
mountain Soghda-Ku — the Mountain of Paradise, in the time 
of Ormuzd. See Heineggs' Kaukasus, i. 155, and Hitter ii. 
889. It is remarkable that the ancients never mention the 
fires of Baku. 



24 



TRIBES OF THE CAUCASUS. 



Mithras, or Lucifer, the later demiurgus, the morn- 
ing-star which ushers on the Sun and dispels the 
night, became an idol ; but afterwards, in this 
same country of Iran, Zoroaster was born, who 
combated this idol-worship, and restored the pure 
doctrines of Ormuzd. 

Subsequently, however, after Alexander's time, 
when the Parthians established a new Partho- 
Persian kingdom, the old religion was obscured, 
idolatry spread, and led even to the deification 
of man. The Parthian dynasty of the Arsa- 
cides asserted their descent from Ormuzd and 
Mithras (Mithridates), called themselves " Fra- 
tres Solis et Lunae," and claimed divine honours. 
Pompey indeed carried the worship of Mithras to 
Rome ;* and there are still traces of its having 
spread thence over the Alps into Carinthia, Salz- 
burg, and the north of Europe. 

The Persian religious element however in time 
prevailed over the Parthian. The Sassanides 
succeeded to the throne, and the great Shah 
Khosru Anushirvan restored the worship of Or- 
muzd. At length arose Islamism, which gradu- 
ally supplanted the latter, Timur invaded and 

# The Christian episcopal mitre may be a faint trace of the 
Mithras worship. 

M 



THE GHEBERS. 



25 



conquered the country, uniting the original innate 
hatred of the Turanians against Iran, with Mo- 
hammedan fanaticism. He resolved to extirpate 
the sacred Iranians, the Ghebers ; the Iranian 
population, in consequence, nearly all perished, 
and their place was filled by the Tatars, who still 
occupy the country. The fire-worship however 
partially revived after Timur's death ; and thou- 
sands of pilgrims from the mountains of Persia 
and Hindostan (whither the Ghebers had fled) 
resorted to the sacred fires at Baku, to perform 
their devotions. The Mohammedan Shahs of 
Persia treated them as enemies, and under the 
reign of Shah Abbas they underwent a general 
persecution ; only a few pilgrims succeeding, va- 
riously disguised, in reaching the holy places, 
where they secretly performed their devotions. 
Under the government of Russia all persecu- 
tion has ceased : the pilgrims are protected, and 
some wealthy merchants of the race of the Ghe- 
bers, in Astrakhan, have erected the remarkable 
temple we have elsewhere described,* Atesh-Dja, 
with houses of entertainment for the anchorites 
and pilgrims. From year to year the number of 
these anchorites diminishes ; there rarely arrive 

* See 4 Transcaucasia/ page 441. 

C 



26 



TRIBES OF THE CAUCASUS. 



fresh pilgrims from India, and the race appears 
drawing toward extinction.* 

Beside the heroic nation of the Iranians, with 
their my t lies and traditions, we meet here like- 
wise the sacred nation of the Medes, with the 
priestly tribe of the Magi ; whilst under the pro- 
tection of heroes and priests, a peaceable mer- 
cantile people gradually sprang up. The posi- 
tion of these countries on the earth's surface 
constituted them a natural mart for the exchange 
of commodities between Europe and Asia; and 
such they have been in all times of tranquillity, 
when the land has been free from the inroads of 
barbarians.f It is remarkable that the aborigi- 

# Throughout these countries are everywhere found hewn 
rocks, artificial caverns, and inscriptions. The strangest and 
most remarkable occur on the east spurs of the Caucasus. 
Here rises Mount Besh-Barmak, the Five-finger Mountain — • 
the Priest- Mountain (Barmek, the high-priest of the Magi). 
This mountain resembles an immense castle of fairyland, built 
by giants, full of caverns, rock-chambers and steps, platforms, 
niches, graves, and inscriptions in various languages. High 
up is a spring, a resort for pilgrims, even from a great distance ; 
it is likewise an abode of predatory Tatars. (Eitter, ii. 872.) 

f Before the birth of Christ no Asiatic monarch, had turned 
his arms against this hallowed land. Cyrus warred with 
the Scythians on the eastern shore of the Caspian Sea, and 
Darius attacked them from the European side. Here was 
the centre of the high-road of commerce between Asia and 



CHINESE COLONISTS. 



27 



nal inhabitants, the Iranians and Medes, whose 
national tastes were averse to commercial enter- 
prise, were not the introducers of this trading 
spirit into these countries, but a race of foreign- 
ers, an Indo-Chinese (Indo-Seric) people, who, 
driven from their distant homes in the south-west 
of China, were received and settled here. He- 
rodotus points out the existence of Indo-Seric 
colonies. Xenophon gives an account of Gym- 
nias on the Araxes as an eastern colony, more 
than 400 b.c. Mar Ibas, in his chronicle, states 
that the sons of Indian princes sought and re- 
ceived protection from the Armenian Arsacides, 
b.c. 145, and founded a city on the Moschic 
plains, Visha-Bakaghak, or City of the Dragon, 
a dragon being everywhere set up as an idol.'"" 

Europe ; and for many centuries it remained undisturbed by 
war. Although Alexander's name figures in all the legends 
connected with this country, he was never there. Pompey 
was the first who invaded it with a hostile army. Moham- 
medanism destroyed the link of tradition with former ages : 
it persecuted the religion of Ormuzd, and annihilated the 
sanctity attached to this country and its inhabitants. Timur, 
Shah Abbas, and Nadir Shah laid waste the ]and. 

# The Dragon is the symbol of the Chinese Fo or Buddha, 
and is still the imperial arms of China. Arms, and figures 
upon, the standards had almost always in ancient times a 
religious meaning. The Griffin (allied to the Dragon) is, ac- 

c .2 



30 



TRIBES OF THE CAUCASUS. 



to the Caucasian markets, for barter with the 
Europeans. Hither also, in the Middle Ages, 
the Venetians, and afterwards the Genoese, re- 
sorted, to procure the celebrated manufactures 
of the East ; and the mention of India and her 
costly products by the German and French Min- 
nesingers, always refers to the countries on the 
western shore of the Caspian Sea.* As early as 
the sixteenth century the English had factories 
here, and Queen Elizabeth in 1561 sent Jenkin- 
son ambassador to Shirvan. Hamburg merchants 
also sought to establish connections with this 
country : Olearius describes their journey thither 
in 1636. The Russians too had a trading inter- 
course here; in 1712 they settled in Shemaki, 
and experienced great losses when this city was 
plundered by the Lesghians. Peter I. made an 
expedition to avenge this incursion, defeated the 
Lesghians, and conquered the whole country : 
the Turks however took Shemaki from him in 
1722: but Nadir Shah afterwards re-took it 
from the Turks, destroyed the city, and in 1734 

# The Apostle Bartholomew introduced Christianity into 
these parts, — India Interior (opposed to India Orientalis), 
as St. Matthew did into the north of Asia Minor. (Eitter, 
ii. 930.) 



ARMENIANS. 



31 



founded a new bazaar and city at a short dis- 
tance from the site of the former one. 

This Indo-Chinese race was nearly annihilated 
by Timur, in a spirit of Mohammedan fanaticism, 
and their place was in the course of time filled 
by the Armenians, likewise a trading people, who 
have by degrees spread far and wide in the East, 
and have at the present clay the chief part of the 
trade with the interior of Asia in their hands. 
These pursuits have brought them into close con- 
nection and intercourse with the so-called ancient 
or Black Jews, scattered over the interior of Asia 
from China to the Caspian Sea ; but their chief 
seat is at Bokhara, where they reside in great 
numbers, having a mysterious political organiza- 
tion under native princes. There is hardly any 
doubt of their being descendants of the Ten lost 
Tribes.* 

Whilst these districts in Eastern Caucasia were 
the great depots for the wares from Asia, and the 
chief trade was in the hands of these industrious 

* Benjamin of Tudela, in 1175, was informed in Persia,, 
that on the high plains of Nishon, twenty-eight days' journey 
from Samarkand, in a territory covered with castles and towns, 
there dwelt an independent Jewish people, of the Tribes of 
Dan, Zebulon, Asher, and JS"aphthali, under a Prince Joseph 
Amarca, a Levite. (Eitter, ii. 487.) 



32 



TRIBES OF THE CAUCASUS. 



and peaceable Sero-Indian colonists, we find in 
the West Caucasian or Colcliian districts a cor- 
responding commercial system, carried on in the 
same manner by a colony of foreigners, who had 
been settled there from time immemorial. Prom 
those eastern depots the wares destined for Eu- 
rope were carried to the western trading-places 
and harbours, the centre of which was the cele- 
brated Dioscurias (probably the little harbour 
of Sukhum Kale). In the time of Mithridates, 
Strabo says, seventy peoples met here for trade ; 
and the traffic in Indian and Bactrian wares, 
precious stones, and costly stuffs, brought great 
wealth to the kingdoms of Prusias, Attalus, and 
Mithridates. In Pliny's time all this country 
was laid waste ; nevertheless he relates that, at 
the commencement of the Roman dominion, the 
enormous trade carried on here required 130 
interpreters among these various peoples. The 
Romans partially abandoned this original chan- 
nel of the trade with Asia, and diverted it into 
another course, by Alexandria and the Red Sea. 

After the destruction of Dioscurias, the mar- 
ket of the Asiatic bartering trade was removed 
further into the interior, toward Georgia, where, 
especially in the valley of the Koor, between Tiflis 



THE COLCHIANS. 



33 



and Erivan, the trade revived. In the seventh 
century it again perished ; and the Eastern trade 
only survived in Shemaki, as long as the Sassa- 
nides protected the followers of Ormuzd, the 
Ghebers. When the latter were persecuted by 
the Mohammedans, the trade moved north, to- 
ward the Volga, into the kingdom of Khozar, 
which flourished again in consequence. 

In the centre of the Colchian district Hero- 
dotus places the Saspires, who served in the 
hosts of Xerxes ; they are probably identical 
with the later Iberians and the present Geor- 
gians.* Nothing certain is known of their ori- 
gin : Ritter is of opinion that they also might 
have been Indo-Chinese immigrants. The word 
Tchin occurs repeatedly in the names of places, 
as Tchin-Kartnet, Tchin-Val, etc. Strabo says 
that the Iberians also were divided into four 
castes ; from the first was chosen the king, ac- 
cording to age, the next in age being appointed 
judge and general ; from the second class were 

# The name Georgia occurs in Pompeius Mela, according 
to whom it signifies agriculture, — perhaps in connection with 
the rivers Koor, Koorgi, Gurgi, Koorgestan. In subsequent 
Christian times its derivation was attributed to the name of 
St. George. The Georgians are indeed the chivalrous people 
of the Caucasian countries. 

c 3 



34 



TRIBES OF THE CAUCASUS. 



chosen the priests, who kept peace with the 
neighbouring peoples; of the third class were 
the warriors ; and the fourth were servants and 
slaves. There was a community of goods in 
families, the oldest administering the property. 
This certainly points to an early connection with 
India. Even at the present day the Georgians are 
divided into four classes, — the princes, clergy, 
nobles, and peasants or serfs ; the king (Czar) is 
the eldest member of the race of the Bagratides, 
and the eldest of the second noble race (the 
Princes Orbellian) is hereditary crown-field-mar- 
shal of the kingdom. 



35 



CHAPTER IV. 

IMPOETANCE OF THESE COTJNTEIES. — WAES OF PEESIA AND 
TUEKEY. — DECLINE OE MOHAMMEDANISM. — PEOGEESS OF 
BUSSIA. — HEE DIPLOMATIC SKILL. — MILITAET FEONTIEE.— 
OBSTACLES TO EUSSIA's DESIGNS. — POSITION OF ENGLAND. 
— CIECASSIANS. — CONJECTUEES ON THE PEESENT CEISIS. 

The sketch we have given in the foregoing pages 
will show the importance which these countries 
have for centuries possessed, in a religious, poli- 
tical, and commercial point of view. It was not 
until the Turks had completely conquered the 
Byzantine kingdom, and the two Mohamme- 
dan empires of Turkey and Persia became con- 
solidated, that they began to recognize the 
value of the possession of this country. They 
first overthrew the power of the two Christian 
kingdoms, which had arisen here since the fourth 
century, — Armenia and Georgia. But, as in 
early times Persians and Greeks, so likewise 
after this conquest Persians and Turks, fought 



36 



TRIBES 0E THE CAUCASUS, 



upon this soil, knowing well that whatever Power 
had the absolute command of this belt of coun- 
try, would be master also of the whole of western 
Asia. The two nations held the balance of power 
nearly poised for centuries ; Eastern Transcau- 
casia being attached to Persia, and Western 
Transcaucasia being under Turkey. The country 
however sank gradually under these governments 
into barbarism and ruin. 

Mohammedanism has, in the course of centu- 
ries, undergone gradual dissolution, and its mis- 
sion in the world appears drawing to a close ; 
the Mohammedan nations have by degrees lost 
all moral weight, in proportion as they have 
sunk into enervating sensuality ; even the martial 
energy of the people has given way, and their 
military discipline steadily declined. There re- 
mains scarcely any perceptible trace of an intel- 
lectual or scientific spirit, such as was early deve- 
loped among the Arabians. In short, the Chris- 
tian nations have in every respect gradually gained 
a vast superiority over the Mohammedans. 

Whilst the Turks and Persians were either 
struggling for the possession of the Caucasian 
countries, or keeping one another jealously in 
check, a great political Power in the North had 



CONQUESTS OF RUSSIA. 



37 



made rapid progress, which was for more than 
a century engaged in war with the two Mo- 
hammedan nations, in these and other countries. 
Russia has shown equally her skill and power 
in diplomacy and in the field. Following the 
political axiom, " Divide et impera," she has uni- 
formly succeeded in preventing the union of the 
two great Mohammedan Powers. Whenever 
she has been at war with one, she has main- 
tained friendly relations with the other; while 
the senseless antipathy and jealousy of Persia and 
Turkey is so rooted, and their political foresight 
so small, that, notwithstanding all the bitter les- 
sons of long experience, at this very moment 
Russia is waging a w^ar with Turkey, and is at 
the same time at peace with Persia, nay, has 
almost found an ally in the latter nation. 

Russia has partly forced her way through the 
Caucasus, partly encompassed it ; advancing by 
slow degrees, and acting with moderation, she 
has succeeded in obtaining possession of the 
whole of these countries. By the last treaty of 
peace with Persia and Turkey, she gained an ex- 
tremely advantageous and secure military fron- 
tier along the heights of the mountain-range, 
which, but for natural obstacles, would lay Persia 



38 



TRIBES OF THE CAUCASUS. 



as well as Asiatic Turkey defenceless, and en- 
tirely in the power of a sufficiently large Russian 
army. 

Two obstacles indeed there are, and only two, 
to this advance of Russia, — -England and the 
Mountain races of the Caucasus. But for these 
impediments, Russia would unquestionably be 
able, by a great effort, to advance her frontiers to 
the Mediterranean and the Persian Gulf. The 
other countries of Europe might stand by and 
bear to witness such aggression on the part of 
Russia ; indeed it might in certain respects bring 
advantage to some of them, as the position of 
western Russia would be considerably changed, 
by the diversion of so important a power from 
that portion of the empire toward the south and 
east. But England, for her own security and 
self-defence, must of right and of necessity carry 
on the war to the knife ; for the question at issue 
involves the security of her possessions in the 
East Indies; this momentous question fills the 
background of the picture. We have mentioned 
a second barrier to the advance of Russia south- 
ward, — the Mountaineers of the Caucasus ; for 
half a century they have fought for the freedom 
of their hearths and homes ; and who can regard 



THE PRESENT CRISIS. 



39 



without interest and admiration the heroic strug- 
gle they have maintained ? 

At the present moment we may probably be 
entering on a great political crisis in the world's 
history, — one which may entail an entire change 
in all the political and social relations of Asia. 
The war for the conquest and possession of the 
Caucasian provinces will probably decide, whe- 
ther this change will be effected rapidly by ex- 
ternal causes, or gradually by internal develop- 
ment. Such events as are now passing give rise 
to many great questions, inviting speculation as 
to their probable solution ; but the ways of Pro- 
vidence are often inscrutable to our weak sight, 
and the issues of the future are lost in obscu- 
rity. 

If England can succeed in rekindling the fana- 
tical zeal of Islamism, now almost expiring,— in 
raising the standard of the Faith, in the person 
of Schamyl and the principles of Muridism, — 
in effecting the union of Sunnites and Shiites, 
Turks and Persians, — if a large English army 
were to advance from the East Indies and cross 
the Persian Gulf, whilst a French army landing in 
Asia Minor were to appear simultaneously on the 
theatre of war, forming a nucleus for the military 



40 



TRIBES OF THE CAUCASUS. 



organization of the undisciplined Mohammedan 
masses, — Russia would unquestionably be placed 
in a very perilous position. But the question is 
beset with difficulties of extraordinary moment. 
It is not an easy matter to plant, to form, and to 
maintain a European army there. 

On the other hand, supposing the Russians to 
come off conquerors, and to compel the remains 
of the European armies to evacuate the country, 
what power could in such a case arrest their vic- 
torious advance? Unchecked, they would take 
possession of the entire countries as far as the 
Persian Gulf and the Mediterranean ; and, for her 
own defence, and security against any renewed 
attack on that side, Russia would be compelled 
to annihilate the two great Mohammedan Powers j 
in which event possibly some temporary satra- 
pies, as Khiva and Bokhara, might be formed. 
But Russia, once planted on the Mediterranean, 
would rule Egypt with an iron hand. This in- 
deed would be the knell of England's power. 

Again, assuming the reverse of this picture, and 
that the armies of the Western Powers, aided 
by the fanatical spirit of Islamism, were finally to 
conquer, and succeed in driving back the Rus- 
sians over the Caucasus,— what then ? The em- 



PROSPECTS OF THE FUTURE. 



41 



barrassment in reality would only begin. What 
is then to be the fate of the Caucasian countries ? 
Can it be imagined that these Christian lands, 
after having been freed from the Mohammedan 
yoke for half a century, and placed under a Chris- 
tian government, should be again subjected to 
the miserable rule of Persia and Turkey, and 
given up to the cruelty and extortion of Pashas 
and Sirdars? 

But let us suppose Persia and Turkey to 
be momentarily reanimated. Are new kingdoms 
to be erected, — for instance, a Christian Georgio- 
Armenian one, with other Mohammedan king- 
doms, according to their nationalities, Koordish, 
Chaldaeo-Syrian, Persian, and Tatar? These would 
indeed be very feeble powers. There exists no 
national feeling or bond, no common historical tie, 
among these races, although they speak the same 
language ; and, wanting these, any such combina- 
tions would inevitably result in anarchy, as soon 
as the European Powers had withdrawn their con- 
trol. The only Christian nation which is really 
capable of a social organization, Armenia, is too 
weak to assume an independent political position : 
it would at once re-unite with Russia, with which 
country it has deep-rooted political and religious 



42 



TRIBES OF THE CAUCASUS. 



sympathies and relations. As soon as any dis- 
turbance or embarrassment in Europe and Ame- 
rica were to clieck the power and energy of France 
and England, all these countries would again be 
thrown into the arms of Russia. It is not im- 
probable that the Western Powers, shrinking be- 
fore such momentous consequences, will abstain 
from entering upon this new theatre of war, or 
setting the avalanche in motion, which it would 
be impossible to arrest in its course. Russia, on 
her side, clearly shrinks from pushing these fear- 
ful questions to an issue. She carried on the war 
very feebly in 1854, remaining on the defensive, 
and making little use eyen of the victories she 
obtained. The Western Powers likewise may be 
averse to drive Russia into a more serious war, 
seeing that, even in the event of her entire de- 
feat, such victory could only displace her for the 
moment from her present advantageous position. 
Should however the storm which is gathering be 
for a time averted, it can be only for a short 
time. The life and vigour of the Mohammedan 
nations Persia and Turkey is almost extinct, and 
where is the power to resuscitate them ? 

The vast importance of these Caucasian coun- 
tries can only be estimated by an investigation 



CHANCES OF THE WAR. 



43 



into their history through past ages ; whilst at 
the same time the circumstances of the present, 
and the probable issues of the future, raise the 
importance of their position, as connected with 
the great questions touching the reorganization 
of the East, the dissolution of Mohammedanism, 
and the probably not very distant triumph and 
spread of Christianity in the East. 



44 



CHAPTER V. 

OEMUZD AND AHRIMAN. — LEGEND OF IRAN AND TURAN. — DUL- 
KARNEIN. — GREAT WALL OE THE CAUCASUS.— —ROMANS AND 
PERSIANS. — KHOSRU ANUSHIRVAN. — CITY OF DERBENT. 

The history of all ages, even from the earliest 
mythical times, exhibits the general existence of 
a leading and firm conviction, that the moun- 
tains of the Caucasus constituted the natural 
barrier and surest defence against the irruption 
of the Northern hordes into the civilized countries 
of Western and Central Asia, — the seats of the 
great monarchies of antiquity. A brief review 
of the past will show the absolute necessity for the 
great Southern Powers to hold possession of the 
countries south of the Caucasus. 

The oldest religious belief of the Persians rests 
upon a principle of dualism. From the first Be- 
ing proceeded Ormuzd, the principle of Good ; 
and afterwards sprang from the same source 
Ahriman, the principle of Evil. These principles 



ORMUZD AND AH III MAN. 



45 



were in perpetual opposition in the universe, 
which in the material world was seen in a strug- 
gle of light with darkness. The earth and man- 
kind, according to the Iranian or ancient Persian 
mythe, were divided between Ormuzd and Ahri- 
man: the sun-land, or land of the South, belonged 
to Ormuzd, together with the good, the noble, the 
pious inhabitants of the South. These were com- 
prised in Iran, and the Iranian race under their 
monarch, to whom all other peoples and kings 
were considered vassals. On the contrary, the 
dark land of night, the North, Mongolia, Tartary 
and Scythia, belonged to Ahriman, to whom 
were attached the barbarian and bad races. The 
Night-land and its inhabitants likewise formed 
a kingdom — Turan — the opposite of Iran. This 
incessant struggle of the empires of light and 
darkness, of Iran and Turan, gave rise to that 
marvellous mythical history, handed down in the 
national annals, and cut in cuneiform characters 
on the rocks throughout Persia ; from it sprang 
the grand epos of the Shah Nameh of Pirdousi. 

The legend runs thus. After a long contest 
between Turan and Iran, a king at last mounted 
the throne of Iran, the most pious and powerful 
monarch that ever lived: this was Dulkarnein. 



46 



TRIBES OP THE CAUCASUS. 



He subjected Turan, and ruled the world for many 
years in peace and happiness. In order to se- 
parate for ever Turan from Iran, this monarch 
caused an enormous wall to be built from one 
end of the world to the other, the remains of 
which are still to be seen in parts, from the China 
Sea, across the north of Persia, along the Cau- 
casus, and which had even in Europe extended 
to the Pillars of Hercules.* 

This Eastern legend, which we find in these 
various parts of the world, became localized in 

# This legend, of a wise and powerful king, who ruled in 
the remotest times, and to whom all the greatest works, in- 
cluding these world-encompassing walls, were attributed, did 
not belong exclusively to the Iranians : it was common to the 
other Asiatic peoples. The Tyrians named him Malek-art-is 
(King of the Earth), the Tyrian Hercules of the Greeks. By 
the Hindoos he is called K-art-ikea (the Great Hero) : by the 
Egyptians, Artes (the Strong). He is the Mars of the Bo- 
mans, the Ares of the Greeks and Scythians (Bitter, ii. 838). 
This world-wide monarch also set the boundary pillars of the 
kingdom of Light, in the east, in the west, and in the centre. 
— in the east, in further India, under the name of the Indian 
Dionysos ; in the west, under the name of Hercules, the Pil- 
lars of Hercules ; in the centre, the Ara or Columna Alcx- 
andri, mentioned by Ptolemy, north of the Caucasus, toward 
the Tanais. It is certain that Alexander was never in that 
part of the world, and his connection with the story is legen- 
dary. Derbent was also considered to lie in the centre of the 
world's boundaries, the Porta Portarum (Gate of Gates), 



LEGEND OF DULKAKNEIN. 



47 



the Caucasian countries, — a process which is com- 
mon in popular tradition, as for instance in the 
remains of antiquity in the north of Germany, 
which the annalists of the Middle Ages attri- 
bute to the Romans, and to Charlemagne and his 
Franks, and which are assigned at the present 
day by popular story to the Swedes in the Thirty 
Years' War. In the Caucasian countries Dul- 
karnein is identified with Alexander the Great ; 
and the erection of the great wall there, together 
with every object of wonder, are attributed to 
"Iskander," although it is notorious that Alex- 
ander w T as never there.* 

Thus far the legendary and mythical accounts. 

# The Koran adheres to the oldest and primitive legend : it 
does not regard the infidel Alexander as the rightful monarch, 
but the trne believer the Persian Shah, who made the pilgrim- 
age to Mecca with Abraham. Dul-k-ar-nein means "Man with 
two Horns," which seems to allude to the Egyptian Jupiter 
Ammon, and the oldest monarchs, the Egyptian Alexander, 
Sesostris, who indeed penetrated into the Caucasus. The 
story of the Macedonian Alexander being the offspring of a 
god. Jupiter Ammon or the Indian Dionysos, which is found 
in various forms throughout the East, has undoubtedly contri- 
buted to the popularity of this stranger there : the notion that 
the divinity of his birth gave him a right to the monarchy of 
the world may have tended to spread his celebrity : it is cer- 
tain that he had a belief in possessing a high descent and 
authority. 



48 TMBES OF THE CAUCASUS* 



Before passing to the period of history, we will 
briefly consider the existing remains of these lines 
of defence and fortification, and the conjectures 
which have arisen respecting them from accurate 
accounts or the actual state of their ruins. 

The remains of these walls in the Caucasus* 
show clearly that they never formed one conti- 
nuous wall, like that of China. The character of 
the country rendered such an unbroken line of 
defence quite unnecessary, and perhaps impossi- 
ble. Most of the steep summits' of the Caucasus 
are nearly impassable for single pedestrians, and 
entirely so for armed and mounted troops. It 
was needful therefore merely to close the defiles 
among the mountains by walls and gates. Whe- 
ther the common tradition is true, that the wall 
was continued from one Sea to the other, has not 
been sufficiently examined and determined : we 
can only judge by the remains of walls and gates 
in certain narrow mountain-passes, together with 
occasional longer, continuous, ruined walls. 

Starting from the Black Sea, remains of this 

# The author has not himself visited those parts of the 
country where traces of these walls exist : he follows, in this 
account the statements of credible writers, as Yon Hitter, 
Dubois, and others. 



THE CAUCASIAN WALL. 



49 



wall are found north of Mingrelia in various 
parts, for a length of ninety miles. Then oc- 
casionally are found valleys and passes which 
have been closed by walls,* in the country of the 
Valgires on the Arredon, of the Sakhas on the 
Flog, and in a valley of the Taganri. We now 
come to the celebrated Pass of Dariel and Vla- 
dikaukas, which is fortified quite in a modern 
manner, and is said to have scarcely any trace of 
the old walls and gates remaining. In the coun- 
try of the Ingushes are found, on the Shalgier, 
the mural remains of Vapila. 

On the southern acclivity of the Shah Dag, on 
the river Alazan, is the chief pass, of the Albanian 
Gate. The traveller Reineggs found still exist- 
ing here in the eighteenth century the remains 
of a wall, in tolerable preservation, nearly ninety 
miles long and in parts 120 feet high. These vast 
remains are connected with others, which close 
the entire line of the Caucasian Wall on the Cas- 
pian Sea near Derbent. The wall still extends 
five miles in tolerable preservation. 

The erection of these walls, and the causes 
which led to it, are simply matters of specula- 

* A map by General Yon Khatof is said to indicate clearly 
the line of these great walls. 

D 



50 TRIBES OF THE CAUCASUS. 

tion as they undoubtedly existed in prehistoric 
times ; they have from age to age however been 
extended and restored, according to the necessity 
of political circumstances. Some writers are of 
opinion that, after the Scythians had penetrated 
into Asia through the Pass at Derbent, laying 
waste the country, and had retired again after a 
dominion of twenty- eight years, this incursion 
naturally induced the inhabitants to construct 
these walls, and close the passes as securely as 
possible, — a conjecture which appears not im- 
probable, although it has no historical confirma- 
tion. 

The Georgian chronicles mention Ardam, the 
governor of the Persian Shah Aphridun (Peridun), 
as the first builder of the walls ; others attribute 
them to Xerxes Isphandiar. No mention is made 
by the Greek and Roman writers before the 
Christian era of the continuous wall. It was not 
until after Pompey (b.c. 66) invaded the peaceful 
countries of the Caucasus, that the walls became 
by degrees known to Europe. Strabo first re- 
lates the existence of the central chief pass, called 
the Caucasian Gate, Pylee Caucasise, which was 
at that time closed by walls and gates. Pliny 
conversed with persons who had seen them, and 



MOUNTAIN PASSES. 



51 



speaks of them as a miracle of nature, whose 
gates were closed with iron bars. Procopius de- 
scribes the Pass minutely, and dwells on its mili- 
tary importance : he says, that all the other passes 
of the Caucasus could only be crossed by pedes- 
trians, but that this was passable by horsemen 
and carriages, and that through this opening the 
equestrian tribes of Sarmatia, the Avars, Aorses, 
Chozars, etc., could penetrate into Iberia, and fall 
upon the Romans in the west, and on the Persians 
in the east. 

As the western Caucasian countries belonged 
to the Romans, and the eastern lands to the Per- 
sians, this Pass was naturally disputed by both 
Powers; in the wars which ensued, each con- 
quered in turn. The Persian Shah Kobad ob- 
tained possession of these countries. When his 
son Khosru Anushirvan concluded peace in 563 
with the Emperor Justinian, these two great 
monarchs, both of whom in all boundary questions 
exhibited the deepest political insight, agreed 
that this was not a point on which their interests 
and policy clashed, but that the necessity of their 
position rather gave them a common interest in 
holding and defending this narrow Pass against 
the barbarous hordes of Sarmatia, They there- 

d 2 



52 



TRIBES OF THE CAUCASUS. 



fore agreed that the Pass should remain open to 
the eastern and western nations, and that which- 
ever Power was entrusted with its defence should 
receive from the other 1,100,000 pieces of gold, 
towards the cost of its maintenance. 

The Sassanidan Shah Kobad and his son Khosru 
Anushirvan, in whom were reawakened all the 
sympathies and traditions of the ancient Persian 
Shahs, restored the pure doctrines of Ormuzd. 
They regarded with peculiar love and veneration 
the hallowed land of the Iranians, of the Magi 
and the sacred fire, the country of Zoroaster, and 
the great race of heroes from which had sprung 
Zal and Roostem, The Shah Kobad wished to 
convert the whole country into a garden of Para- 
dise, encompassed by a wall : he erected Baku, 
and commenced the restoration of the Caucasian 
wall.* His son Khosru Anushirvan completed 
the work, and founded the city of Derbentf at 

# The erection of such a wall, encompassing and protecting 
the kingdom against the invasions of Barbarians, belonged to 
the spirit and ideas of that time. The Emperor Jnstinian songht 
in like manner protection from the irrnptions of the northern 
Barbarians by walls and ramparts (Valles Trajani, etc.). 

t There occurs no earlier mention of this city ; if there had 
been any town there previously, Khosru at least rebuilt it and 
surrounded it with walls. 



DERBENT. 



53 



the Eastern Pass (Porta Caspia), on the Caspian 
Sea. 

The Persian historical sources of that time are 
deficient, or have not been sufficiently investi- 
gated ; and we are indebted for most of our in- 
formation respecting these remains to the Arabian 
writers Ibn Haukal, Masudi, Edrisi, etc. The 
country was already under Mohammedan rulers, 
who accepted the legends and traditions respect- 
ing the Caucasian walls, but considered them as 
a protection against Gog and Magog of the Bible 
and the Koran, instead of the Turanians, the fol- 
lowers of Ahriman, the Divs and Jinns. Derbent 
was sacred in their eyes, from the circumstance 
that Mohammed had called this city "the Gate 
of Faith." The Mohammedan rulers added much 
to the place, and it is v consequently difficult to 
distinguish what they built, and the part ori- 
ginally belonging to the Sassanides.* 

# The name of the city is different in various nations. The 
Persians and Armenians call it Derbent, from der, dar, 
dur (Door), and bent signifies narrow, — i.e. 1 narrow gate.' 
Among the Turks we find the name Demir-Capi, i. e. Iron 
Gate. Among the Arabians, Bab-el-Abwabi, i. e. Gate of the 
Gates of the Faithful ; and among the later Arabians also, Bab- 
el-Hadidi, i. e. the Iron Gate. The Tatars call it Balk-Borcah, 
i. e. the Boundary House. Marco Polo (an. 1300) calls it also 
" Porta di Ferro." 



54 



TRIBES OF THE CAUCASUS. 



The city of Derbent stands on a rock, extend- 
ing along the seashore. It has seven iron gates, 
each with two towers and a mosque.* The walls 
built by the Sassanides, with extraordinary care, 
were fortified with watch-towers. The city was 
divided into seven quarters, and the Khalif Ha- 
roun-al-Raschid erected the iron gates. 

Here begins the Caucasian Wall, which ex- 
tended from the sea to the mountain of Ha- 
nashp. Ibn Haukal (a. d. 960) says that the 
wall was carried far into the sea, to protect the 
harbour (now completely closed with sand) from 
storms and hostile attacks. A second parallel 
wall ran about three hundred yards from the 
city. The army of Peter I., as late as 1720, de- 
filed between the two. All these walls are built 
of limestone, hewn into square stones, so large 
that it would require fifty men to remove one. 
In this first line of the Caucasian wall there were 
seven iron gates, and over each gate were two 
lionsf (or sphinxes), as talismans, before which 
the infidels were said to shrink, who were con- 

* The mosques undoubtedly date from the time of the Mo- 
hammedan rule. 

f These lions are clearly of the time of the Sassanides ; the 
Mohammedans erected no statues or sculpture. 



THE CAUCASIAN WALL. 



55 



stantly striving to undermine the walls, and to pe- 
netrate into the country of the Faithful.* Seven 
roads led from these seven gates to the city. 

Masudi states that the wall commences on the 
seashore, runs to the fortified tower of Kaliat Ta- 
barestan, and proceeding thence has iron gates 
at intervals of fourteen miles, each with a strong 
tower. Edrisi (a.d. 1151) acids, that the entire 
Caucasian Wall had three hundred gates and 
towers, which is plainly an exaggeration, although 
he names a great number of them.f 

Derbent declined gradually after the sixteenth 
century, and its defences were neglected : the 

* There is an old legendary basis for this story. When Is- 
kander (Dulkarnein) erected the great wall between the king- 
doms of Ormuzd and Ahriman (Iran and Turan), he employed 
various metals : the dog-nosed Divs lick and gnaw this perpe- 
tually, to destroy it : they will, it is believed, succeed one 
day before the last Judgement. The Mohammedans converted 
the Divs into Gog and Magog. Among the inhabitants of 
Derbent a prophetic tradition still prevails, that the empire of 
the Faithful will not be destroyed, until an infidel enemy with 
yellow faces shall force their way through the walls into the 
country. "When Niebuhr asked the Turks what hostile people 
were meant in this story, they replied, the Russians. On his 
putting the same question to the Arabs, they thought the 
Europeans at large were intended, as Stamboul would by 
their encroachments in time be removed to Bagdad. (Eitter.) 

f See Hitter, ii. 865, seq. 



56 



TRIBES OF THE CAUCASUS. 



great walls fell into ruin, and were in part wan- 
tonly destroyed. It nevertheless retains its place 
in the history of the world, and its military im- 
portance is incalculable, being the link connect- 
ing the Caucasian line of defence with the Cas- 
pian Sea. When Peter I. entered Moscow, after 
his campaign in the Caucasus, the most impor- 
tant of all his trophies were considered to be the 
silver keys of the iron gates of Derbent. 



57 



CHAPTER VI. 

THE SASSANIDES. — MILITAEY COLONIES. — PKINCIPALITIES. — 
SEEIE. — GENGHIS KHAN. — THE SCHAM KHAL. 

The Sassanides, with a view to secure their do- 
minion over these countries, which they con- 
sidered so important, not only restored the old 
walls and fortified all the narrow passes, but they 
also established on the northern acclivities along 
the chain of the Caucasus a number of towns 
and fortified towers, to withstand the first attacks 
of the Barbarians, and serve as places in which 
to assemble and make their defensive prepara- 
tions. They likewise planted on either side of 
the wall, and in the mountains, military settle- 
ments, colonized by people of various nations, for 
the defence of the mountain-range ; these colonies 
were chiefly under the rule of native princes, 
who, after the fall of the kingdom of the Sassa- 
nides, formed small independent dynasties, and 

d 3 



58 



TRIBES OF THE CAUCASUS. 



for a long period defended their ancient faith 
against the Mohammedans, whilst they lived in 
perpetual fends with one another. Probably a 
part of the Lesghians, who resemble them in 
their mode of life and dress, although differing 
entirely in language, may be the descendants of 
these military colonists.^ 

The Sassanides also followed the ancient tra- 
ditions of Persia, restoring the primitive feudal 
state, which resembled that of the Germans in 
spirit and character : they planted on the Borders 
hereditary feudal princes, answering to the Mar- 
graves of Germany. In ancient times the cele- 
brated heroic Persian race of Zal and Roostem 
ruled here, in true feudal union with the Shah. 
Khosru Anushirvan built Shirvan, as the resi- 
dence of a Border prince : he formed a princi- 
pality of the mountain districts above the Koor, 
with which he invested one of his kinsmen, of the 
race of the Sassanides. Masudi mentions them 
as existing since the year 590. 

The most remarkable margravate was founded 

* The case is at the present day reversed : military colonies 
are now established by the Bussians as a defence against the 
mountain tribes, formed of the various Cossack peoples ; they 
extend along the whole line of the Caucasus. 



THE SASSANIDES. 



59 



by the Sassanides above Derbent, — the princi- 
pality of the Lord of the Golden Throne.* The 
territory of Serir began at a distance of three 
days' journey north of Derbent : it was, a.d. 960, 
inhabited by Christians, who yet lived on the 
best terms with the Moslems. North of the ter- 
ritory of Serir lay the country of the king of 
Asmid (or Semid), the capital of which was 
near the frontier of the kingdom of Chozi (Cha- 
zaren), and whose king was a Jew; he never- 
theless maintained the best understandinp; with 
Serir and Chozi. The prince or king of Serir 
bore the Persian title of Padishah of Serir, i.e. King 
of the Golden Throne. The commander-in-chief, 
Behram Khopin, a kinsman of the Shah Khosru 
Anushirvan, received this margravate for his son 
as an hereditary fief. He also bore the title of 
honour Bal (Baal, Bel), and was presented by the 
Shah, as a token of his high dignity, with a 
magnificent golden throne, the work of many 
years. 

Whether these Sassanides or Gheber princes 
afterwards abandoned the religion of Ormuzd 
and became Christians, or whether the country 
was conquered and the throne usurped by a race 

# Ibn Haukal (a.d. 960) is our chief aiithority here. 



60 



TRIBES OE THE CAUCASUS. 



of Christian Greek princes, is a question on which 
history is silent. In the year 960, Ibn Haukal 
found this country entirely Christian ; in the time 
of Edrisi (1130), the kingdom still existed, but 
it was overthrown by Genghis Khan. The title 
however appears to have partially survived in 
the kingdom of the Golden Horde, on the Volga, 
founded in 1250 by Genghis Khan, and de- 
stroyed by Timur in 1395 ;* whilst in this dis- 
trict was formed the new Mohammedan princi- 
pality of the Scham Khal, the Tatar-Lesghian 
prince in Tarku. The rise and extent of this prin- 
cipality is very obscure. It is impossible that the 
Mohammedan sway should have co-existed with 
the Sassanidan or Christian kingdom of Serir in 
this country, unless it were confined to the town 
of Tarku : probably the Mohammedan dominion 
extended originally over a mountain district more 
to the west, the princes of which, after the de- 
struction of the kingdom of Serir, obtained power 
over the greater part of the latter. 

The traditions of the country relate that, un- 

* Al Wardi (1340) evidently confounds the ancient Prince 
of the Golden Throne, with the later Mongol Khan of the 
Golden Horde, whom he calls Serir-ed-Dehab, after the old 
Serir. 



THE SCHAM KHAL. 



61 



der the Khalif of Damascus, governors were ap- 
pointed in the frontier provinces, one of whom 
was placed on the north-eastern side of the Cau- 
casus, with the high title of Scham Khal, or Vice- 
roy of the Khalif, to act as a defence against the 
Uruss (Russians). The power of the Scham Khal 
of Tarku, based on the remarkably favourable 
position he occupied, increased considerably : he 
acted an important part in the war between 
Peter I. and Persia. In the year 1740 his power 
extended over nearly the whole of the Caucasus, 
to the Black Sea. After all the Transcaucasian 
countries had fallen into the power of Russia, by 
conquest or gradual acquisition, the Scham Khal 
became a mere vassal to that Power, and lost all 
virtual political existence. The Scham Khal, from 
his origin and position, was the ancient outpost 
defence of Islamism in the north against Gog 
and Magog. 

The title of Viceroy of the Khalif has disap- 
peared ; but the position, power, and political and 
religious influence over the Mohammedan races 
of the Caucasus which he possessed survive to 
the present day, transmitted to the neighbouring 
prophet of Muridism, Schamyl. 



62 



CHAPTER VII. 

THE CAUCASUS. — SHAHS OF PEESIA. — ADVANCE OF EUSSIA. — 
POLITICAL POSITION OF CAUCASIA. — MOUNTAINEERS.-— 
GEORGIA AND ARMENIA.— TATARS AND PERSIANS. — NUME- 
ROUS RACES. — POLICY OF RUSSIA, — TRADE WITH THE CIR- 
CASSIANS. — INTRODUCTION OF CHRISTIANITY. — MURIDISM. 

The Caucasus has through all times been a pro- 
tecting barrier to the ancient monarchies of Asia 
against the North. The hardy mountaineers have 
contributed to maintain this defence, but without 
ever surrendering their own independence, not- 
withstanding the repeated attempts of the Per- 
sians, Byzantines, and Turks, to subjugate them. 
These attempts have all proved vain. The Mo- 
hammedan Shahs of Persia called the eastern 
Caucasus Alaphat, i. e. Mountains of Victory, as 
they boasted of having reduced under their do- 
minion here one hundred and seventy peoples. 
Where is now their dominion ? An old Persian 
proverb says, " If the Shah is too mighty, let him 



DECLINE OF PERSIA. 



63 



only make war on the Caucasus !" The Persians 
have indeed occasionally seized posts on the north 
side of the Caucasus, founded settlements, and 
built towns ; for a short time indeed their sway 
extended as far as the Volga. But the position 
was untenable, — snatched hastily in a favouring 
moment, but lost as suddenly again. Thamas 
Kuli Khan (Nadir Shah) erected a formidable for- 
tress north of Derbent, about the year 1740, and 
named it, as if prophetically, Iran Gharab (Iran's 
Destruction). From that very time, when the 
last powerful and warlike monarch occupied the 
throne of Persia, Iran gradually sank, and Per- 
sia's power and name are now nearly effaced and 
forgotten in the Caucasus ; the Sultan and the 
Turks alone meet any longer with consideration 
and sympathy among the Caucasian races. 

The political relations of the country are now 
completely changed : whereas in former times the 
Asiatic Powers carried their arms beyond the 
Caucasus,— at times victorious, but quickly again 
losing their northern conquests, — at the present 
time the great Northern Power has extended her 
dominion into the south Caucasian countries, and 
occupies a threatening position on the frontier 
heights between the two Asiatic empires. It is 



64 TRIBES OF THE CAUCASUS. 



not probable that this position can be merely a 
temporary one. In the early times of the human 
race, civilization characterized the South, and bar- 
barism the North : the picture is now reversed ; 
whilst in the South barbarism and decay every- 
where prevail, the Northern Power is, on the 
contrary, well organized and consolidated ; and 
it is not imaginable, that the two enfeebled Asi- 
atic empires can ever regain the power, unaided, 
to drive Russia from her position. But other and 
unlooked-for events have arisen, and the Eastern 
Powers have received such formidable aid and 
support from unexpected quarters, that the ba- 
lance of the future trembles on the beam. 

To understand aright the political position of 
these countries, in this great war, the relations 
existing among the various races inhabiting them, 
political, social, and religious, require to be stu- 
died. Viewing them collectively, we have here 
three separate national groups, which from time 
immemorial have dwelt side by side, yet separate 
and distinct, — the mountaineers of the Caucasus, 
the western races, and the eastern races. 

The first of these races, without entertaining 
any sympathy for Turks, Persians, or Europeans, 
cherish a growing hostility, a deep-rooted hatred 



GEORGIA AND ARMENIA. 



65 



toward Russia : all they demand is to remain in- 
dependent, with full freedom of action : they re- 
quire the former Powers to secure their freedom, 
but without at all being willing to unite with 
them. They are for the greater part Mohamme- 
dans, and have recently found a great political 
and religious centre, a hero, around whom they 
gather. 

The western nations, Georgia and Armenia, are 
Christian, for the most part connected w r ith the 
Russian Church. At no period, either in an- 
cient or modern times, have they had any po- 
litical, national, or religious connection with the 
Eastern Caucasians. They have a profound aver- 
sion to the Persians and Turks, and will always 
support Russia against those Powers. The Ar- 
menians are decidedly attached to Russia ; but 
although this feeling may not universally prevail 
among the Georgian nobles, it is very question- 
able whether any influence or power from Western 
Europe could ever succeed in shaking their fide- 
lity. Their old men still remember the events 
of 1800, how barbarously the Turks and Persians 
treated the Georgians, extorting a tribute of boys 
and girls from them, and forcibly compelling them 
to embrace Islamism. 



66 TRIBES OF THE CAUCASUS. 



In 1795 Aga Mohammed took and completely 
destroyed Tiflis, and the Georgian king only re- 
tained possession of Kaishaur. All hope died 
away, and on his deathbed he bequeathed his king- 
dom to the Emperor Paul, beseeching him in his , 
testament to occupy and protect the country, and 
to maintain the Christian faith. When Alexander 
succeeded to the throne, he long hesitated whe- 
ther to accept a present so beset with difficulties. 
Tiflis has now between forty and fifty thousand 
inhabitants ! 

The eastern side, inhabited by Tatar and Per- 
sian races, all of the Mohammedan' faith, are in- 
imical to the Russians, notwithstanding the mild 
treatment they have received. Russia can ex- 
pect little aid from these peoples ; but whether 
they will, on the other hand, rise and take a de- 
cided part against Russia, and openly join the 
Turks and Persians, is quite another question. 
With the latter people they have no sympathy ; 
they are ignorant of the feeling of independence, 
and have for centuries been accustomed to foreign 
rule. 

The mountainous districts of the Caucasus are 
inhabited by perhaps more than a hundred dif- 
ferent peoples, remains of races, or distinct and 



RUSSIAN POLICY. 



67 



independent tribes. There has never been any 
united government or action : a warlike state has 
already lasted more than one generation, though 
it cannot be called a regular war. In early times 
the two most populous races of the Caucasus, 
the Circassians and Lesghians, made frequent 
predatory incursions upon all their neighbours : 
this the Russians would not suffer ; they planted 
Cossacks near them, to keep them in check, and 
chastised them from time to time for their rob- 
beries. At length Russia seriously formed the 
project of taking possession of these countries ; 
but, notwithstanding the vast increase, the gigan- 
tic development of her power, the attempt proved 
perfectly futile. Russia therefore abandoned her 
plans of conquest by the sword, and sought to 
accomplish her object by other and peaceable 
means, by introducing among the inhabitants Eu- 
ropean civilization, luxury, wants, and customs. 
Instead of measures of severity, force, and prohi- 
bition, she opened her markets to the Circassians, 
permitted the sale of children, and endeavoured 
to win the people over by good offices and pre- 
sents. 

Among the Circassians in the west this system 
was. crowned with partial success: regular war- 



68 



TRIBES OF THE CAUCASUS. 



fare lias for many years ceased in that part of 
the country, and only occasional predatory at- 
tacks of small bands of Circassians took place. 
The system would have led to much better re- 
sults, if a regular and organized trade had been 
established; but such an attempt was attended 
with great difficulties. It might perhaps have 
been carried into effect in the first instance by 
Germans. The German institution of guilds and 
trading fraternities contains the elements of a com- 
plete legal organization, which might have been 
rendered available under such circumstances, 
and to which might have been safely entrusted 
the carrying out of such trade with the Circas- 
sians, under certain privileges, control, and su- 
pervision. These Germans might perhaps have 
co-operated with the honest Karaim Jews* in 
carrying their trade into the heart of Circassia. 
Such a system, consistently carried out, would in 
time doubtless have tranquillized this country, 
and a peaceful intercourse have been established 
with the mountaineers, even at a partial eventual 
sacrifice of their independence : this has however 
not been the case, and recent events have entirely 
broken off all amicable relations. 

# See ' Transcaucasia.' 



THE CIRCASSIANS. 



69 



If with the introduction of European civiliza- 
tion among these mountaineers, they at the same 
time remained Mohammedans, many of the noble 
traits of character, their energy and spirit, would 
gradually disappear : they would become a race 
of mere licked barbarians. True civilization could 
only spread on the introduction of Christianity • 
and this might probably be effected by the exer- 
tions of zealous and able missionaries ; for a great 
part of the Circassians were in fact Christians 
in early times. Mohammedanism has been pro- 
fessed by the nobles and princes for more than 
a century, and at the present time the lower 
classes of the Circassians are without any definite 
belief. They are said to have received Christi- 
anity from the Genoese, and ancient traditions 
and sympathies still exist among them : indeed 
we see a proof that these sympathies are not 
wholly effaced, in their attachment to their an- 
cient weapons, which the Genoese brought (as 
they assure us), and on many of which are still 
seen Latin inscriptions and names. The ruins of 
Genoese churches and crosses are found every- 
where in the mountains, and no Circassian ever 
rides past these without dismounting, falling on 
his knees, and paying his devotions. 



70 



TRIBES OF THE CAUCASUS. 



Russia had indeed at one time nearlv succeeded 

t/ 

in arresting the war with the Circassians ; they 
merely kept up a mutual surveillance, and esta- 
blished almost a friendly intercourse : but Russia 
failed entirely in her attempts to pacify the East- 
ern Caucasus : the war here assumed a more se- 
rious and regular character, and was conducted 
on a larger scale. In this country other grounds 
of enmity existed : in Daghestan for a long period 
Mohammedanism has prevailed generally, which 
in Circassia has found less ardent followers : here 
the Mohammedan sect of the Murids has arisen ; 
religious fanaticism has increased with inconceiv- 
able rapidity ; and prophets and leaders have ap- 
peared, who have introduced unity of spirit and 
action among the people, and organized the mili- 
tary operations of the country. 

The accounts we receive are very incomplete and 
inaccurate. These mountaineers use the sword, but 
not the pen, — the Russians fight, but are not al- 
lowed to write : state policy forbids this. A rich 
field for the inventive genius of the European 
press ! Occasionally travellers have brought us 
true statements, but far more generally false ones ; 
and it is no uncommon thing for people to take 
pleasure in imposing upon travellers, particularly 



INACCURATE REPORTS. 



71 



when they manifest a curious turn. There are 
no places of public resort, no coffeehouses, where 
such information can be obtained : in Tiflis, for 
example, the war with the mountaineers is never 
mentioned. 

Foreign military officers — Prussians, Austrians, 
Danes and French — have frequently accompanied 
the armies of Russia in their campaigns, to perfect 
themselves in field service : they have uniformly 
met with the best reception, and been treated as 
comrades by the Russians. This has naturally 
called for discretion and reserve on their part, 
in all the accounts they have made public. The 
consequence in short is, that comparatively few r 
accurate and connected accounts of this memora- 
ble Circassian war have reached Europe. 

A manuscript of considerable interest has been 
communicated to the author by a friend, from 
which the following account of the origin and 
spread of Muridism is taken. Although a Ger- 
man by birth, the w r riter had ample opportunities 
of studying closely the character and religious 
and political circumstances of the Circassians; 
together with many personal accounts respecting 
the mountaineers of the Eastern parts, which he 
has introduced into his narrative. 



72 



CHAPTER VIII. 

THE MURIDS. — STHICT MOHAMMEDANS. — THE SULTAN. — ORI- 
GIN OE MURIDISM. MOSQUE AT JAEACH. MOOLLAH MO- 
HAMMED. — HIS CHARACTER AND POSITION. — -PREACHES WAR. 
— KAZI MOHAMMED. — ANECDOTE OF HADJI ISMAEL. — THE 
KAZAMET. 

The Murids are not properly a Mohammedan sect: 
their religion differs on no doctrinal grounds from 
that of other Mohammedans : they form rather 
a politico-religious party. In fact they preach 
expressly the unity of the Shiites and Sunnites, 
they urge upon both parties the duty of forget- 
ting their religious and internal dissensions, and 
of upraising the standard of the Prophet, and 
striving for that grand and simple injunction of 
Mohammed, to cc conquer the world and subject 
it to the Faithful, and to extirpate the Unbe- 
lievers. 55 In their external, political organization, 
they follow the Persian Soofism; but, on the other 
hand, they acknowledge the Padishah of Turkey as 
the lawful Khalif. Nevertheless they reason thus ; 



AUTHORITY OF THE SULTAN. 73 

— The Khalif is weak ; he has fallen off from the 
pure doctrines of Islamism, he makes peace with 
the Unbelievers, and allows them to be about 
his person ; he is in their power, their prisoner, 
or he is a direct apostate ! * His sway over the 
Faithful has consequently de facto ceased, and 
this has reverted to the Mohammedan bodv at 
large, and their Moollahs. Thus we recognize the 
sovereignty of the people in Islamism. Moham- 
med everywhere raises up new prophets and 
leaders from the people, who are commissioned 
by him to lead the Faithful to victory against the 
enemy : these they are bound to obey. 

Muridism, like everything great in life and 
history, sprang and was unfolded gradually from 
an insignificant germ. 

In the village of Jarach, in Daghestan, there 
stands among the other small huts a humble two- 
storied building : a small staircase on the outside 

* History abounds in analogies. "When Pope Pius YII. con- 
cluded the Concordat with Napoleon, and issued a Bull, re- 
constituting the Episcopacy of Erance, a number of the Bishops, 
who during the Revolution had been expelled from their Sees, 
and had not been reinstated, protested against the Concordat. 
A schism ensued: "la petite Eglise" nearly separated from 
Rome, and openly called the Pope an Apostolical apostate ; 
but Napoleon, with an iron hand, suppressed this movement. 

E 



74 



TRIBES OE THE CAUCASUS. 



leads to the wooden balcony on the second story, 
which is sheltered from fthe sun and rain. This 
is the little village Mosque ; the Crescent that sur- 
mounts it indicates the service of the building. 
Withinside everything is simple, naked, and lowly. 
All mosques have a certain air of simplicity, but 
they have frequently handsome vestibules, elegant 
vessels containing water for ablution, etc. There 
is nothing of this kind here: the mosque at Ja- 
rach is a naked apartment, thirty paces long and 
eighteen wide, dimly lighted by three small round 
windows, like portholes : the walls are greyish- 
brown, and the floor covered with a miserable felt 
carpet. In the middle stands a kind of pulpit, 
rudely carved of walnut-tree wood. On the walls 
are inscribed in large letters, half effaced, texts 
from the Koran. This humble village Mosque has, 
by the simple power of eloquence, become the 
cradle of an insurrection, which has set Daghe- 
stan in flames, and soon spread over the whole 
of the Caucasus. In this little mosque Moollah 
Mohammed, the father and founder of Muridism, 
preached, with a fervent and inspiriting enthu- 
siasm. 

Moollah Mohammed was a man of an impo- 
sing appearance, tall and thin, with noble, dark 



MOOLLAH MOHAMMED. 



75 



and expressive features, a lustrous black eye, 
though quite blind, from long night study and 
watching, white hair, and a short white beard. 
His mild and cheerful features, yet marked by 
severe mental toil, indicated the learned Moollah, 
who was also distinguished by the green turban, 
with its wide blue over-garment. Never had 
blood stained his hands; his life was pure, hardly 
could sinful thoughts be imagined to have ever 
entered his mind. The views which the Mosque 
commanded over the broad green forests of Da- 
ghestan, bounded on the far horizon by the blue 
waves of the Caspian, early impressed on his 
youthful mind, had in manhood, after he became 
blind, remained deeply graven on his soul, — the 
outward world to him, — associated with every 
thought of himself and of those attached to him. 
He spent his life in religious observances, and in 
the study of the holy books, which he expounded 
to his disciples. And this pious, gentle, peace- 
able old man, who appeared scarcely to be con- 
nected with the earth but by the breath of life, 
— whose gentle voice was scarce audible in per- 
fect silence, — this man preached the uprising 
of the people like one man, — preached a bloody 
and relentless war, and ardent, inextinguishable 

e 2 



76 



TRIBES OF THE CAUCASUS. 



hate ! His trembling, guiltless hands blessed the 
arms which he sent forth to shed torrents of 
blood. 

Next in rank to Arslan Khan, Moollah Mo- 
hammed was the highest Cadi, or judge, in the 
Khanate of Kuril. Until the year 1823 he lived 
peaceably in Jarach, occupied with his study of 
the holy books and his judicial duties. On fes- 
tivals he expounded the teachings of the Prophet 
to the people, who gathered from even distant 
lands, to listen to the inspired preacher. 

From the tithe of the produce of his parish,* 
and the freewill offerings and presents of the 
pious, he soon acquired a considerable income. 
Nevertheless he himself lived in indigence, whilst 
he gave largely to the poor. All the Moollahs of 
the country acknowledged him the first Alim (or 
learned scribe) in Daghestan. A multitude by 
degrees gathered around him, who assembled in 
his dwelling, read with him the Koran, and lis- 
tened eagerly to his expositions. 

Amongst the most diligent and attentive of 
these pupils, Kazi Mohammed, a native of Bo- 
khara, was pre-eminent : he resided seven years 

* The tithe (zekot) is among the Mohammedans likewise 
the legal impost by which the clergy are supported. 



KAZI MOHAMMED. 



77 



with the Mooliah, who received him into his in- 
timacy and confidence. Suddenly he quitted his 
old master, to return, as he said, to his native 
country. But ere a year had passed, he had re- 
turned to Jarach, where he lived as before with 
the aged Mooliah Mohammed. The latter, who 
loved him as a son, soon remarked an unaccount- 
able change in his whole manner and mode of life. 
Kazi Mohammed shunned all society, no longer 
frequented the mosque, nor attended the exposi- 
tions of the Koran, scarcely ever quitting his little 
cell. Once Mooliah Mohammed surprised him 
at midnight : he found him, by his solitary lamp, 
deeply buried in the study of the Koran. The 
old master, in astonishment, asked him the cause 
of this change in his life and manner ; remarking 
that there must be some secret cause, perhaps 
the burden of some sin upon his conscience, which 
no prayers and fasting could expiate. 

" Assuredly/' replied Kazi Mohammed, " I 
have a great secret ; and therefore it is that I 
have returned to thee, to prove my gratitude for 
all thy paternal love and care of me during these 
seven years, by disclosing to thee the means of 
attaining this holy mystery. Since I quitted thee, 
a year and a clay ago, a new light has fallen on 



78 



TRIBES OF THE CAUCASUS. 



my mind, and revealed to me the true and pro- 
found sense of the holy books. Ye men of Da- 
ghestan vainly imagine that ye understand the 
law; but ye all — ay, and thou likewise, who art 
so deeply read in the Koran — perceive only the 
dead word, but not its deep and divine import !" 

In vain did Moollah Mohammed press Kazi 
to communicate to him the new light and know- 
ledge that had been revealed to him. " It were 
unbeseeming for me/' said Kazi, " to attempt 
to teach so celebrated an Alim, who moreover 
has been my paternal instructor : but if thou 
desirest, we will repair together to the renowned 
Effendi Hadji Ismael, who has initiated me in the 
deep secrets of this new knowledge." 

Moollah Mohammed consented, and they jour- 
neyed together, accompanied by several other of 
the pupils, to Kurdamir, a village in Shirvan, 
where Hadji Ismael at that time resided. On 
their arrival they found the venerable Effendi 
engaged in cutting young twigs from his mul- 
berry-trees, to feed his silkworms. Astonish- 
ment and dread seized on all, when they saw 
the holy man doing a thing so strictly and par- 
ticularly forbidden by the Koran. Hadji looked 
up, and without any customary greeting, he said 



HADJI ISMAEL. 79 

to Moollah Mohammed, " Ye well know that it is 
forbidden by the Koran to lop off these twigs ; 
but this was only to prevent the extirpation of 
trees which are so necessary in Arabia. The case 
is different in this country ; here w 7 e can prune 
the mulberry-twigs without at all injuring the 
trees ; at the same time they serve for food to 
one of the most useful of God's creatures, which 
gives the means of livelihood to innumerable 
people/' 

The wisdom of this remark struck the hearers 
forcibly, and prepared their minds for the new 
teachings and revelations which they now received 
from Hadji Ismael. Moollah Mohammed and 
his scholars remained some time with the Effendi, 
gaining an insight into the true sense of many 
parts of the Koran, conversing on the decline of 
the Faith, and the means of reviving it, but above 
all on the chief subject, — throwing off the yoke 
of the Unbelievers. After Hadji Ismael had 
opened all the stores of his knowledge to Mool- 
lah Mohammed, he bestowed on him his benedic- 
tion as a Murshid, or spiritual preacher, urging 
him solemnly to devote his life to the revival of 
the Faith in Daghestan. 

It is a remarkable circumstance, that Hadji Is- 



80 



TRIBES OF THE CAUCASUS. 



mael suddenly disappeared, and nothing was ever 
heard of him again there or elsewhere ; he had 
kindled the spark, and Muridism speedily spread 
throughout Daghestan. The Russians assert that 
this remarkable man was an emissary of the Per- 
sian Government, which at that time anticipated 
a rupture with Russia, who was sent to stir up 
an insurrection in Daghestan, with a view to em- 
barrass the operations of Russia. 

On his return to Jarach, Moollah Mohammed 
devoted himself more than ever to the study of 
the holy books, shutting himself up in his cell 
the whole day long. The reputation of his sanc- 
tity increased, and pilgrims flocked to him from 
all quarters to hear his teaching and exhortation. 
He dwelt more frequently and more earnestly 
than ever on the corruption of the age, the de- 
generacy of the Faith, and the necessity of re- 
storing its inner vitality, in order to secure the 
victory against its external enemies. In this man- 
ner he gradually prepared his hearers for carrying 
out the great object he had in view, and by de- 
grees their confidence in him became more and 
more fervent and unbounded. 

One day, when the multitude was assembled 
in greater numbers than usual, he appeared 



MOOLLAH MOHAMMED. 



81 



before them, and with an emphatic and solemn 
energy, he preached to them of the necessity of 
repentance, reproached them with their indiffer- 
ence to their religion, denounced the Moollahs 
for their neglect of their sacred duties, and their 
engrossing care for their worldly interests. He 
then proceeded to accuse himself as an example 
of this laxity of duty, confessing before the as- 
sembled people his errors and ignorance, in never 
having truly understood or acted up to the mean- 
ing and spirit of the Law. " Take all that I pos- 
sess — relieve me of my burden!" he exclaimed; 
"it is your gift,. I am unworthy of it: I stum- 
ble in the dark ; I have imperfectly, nay falsely, 
taught and preached the holy laws of the Koran 
to you." 

Touched by his earnestness and humility, 
the people entreated him not to give away the 
little he had received from them, which, they 
said, he had employed indeed almost wholly in 
acts of beneficence ; and begging him, for the 
future, not to refuse the pious gifts of the Faith- 
ful. But the old man remained resolute, and 
that same day he distributed all that he pos- 
sessed among the poor, living himself in great 
poverty. 

e 3 



82 



TRIBES OF THE CAUCASUS. 



The following address was written clown by 
one of his hearers ; copies of it were rapidly 
made and circulated through the whole of 
Daghestan. We give a literal translation of it, 
on account of the extraordinary political effect it 
produced. 

" Your wealth, your dowries, your marriages, 
your children lie under a curse ; Allah has 
stamped them with the seal of hell ! for ye con- 
tinue to live in your sins, ye will not acknow- 
ledge and fulfil the law of the Prophet, He who 
acknowledges the true God, says the Koran, can 
be the slave of no man ; he must follow and obey 
the holy commands of his religion, and dares 
not bow before the great men of the earth. His 
first duty is, by persuasion and the sword, to 
spread the light of the true Faith in the world, 
to forsake his family and country, when danger 
threatens Islamism, and to arm himself against 
the Unbelievers. And ye — what have ye done ? 
what do ye ? The Russians have come into the 
country, and ye have cowardly submitted to 
their sway without a struggle ! The free Mus- 
sulman has abjectly taken the yoke, and become 
the slave of the Unbeliever, — of the Infidel, who 
has desecrated his mosques, who has trampled on 



PREACHING THE KAZAMET. 83 

his freedom, who probably, nay assuredly, con- 
templates the destruction of Islamism. And ye, 
miserable cowards, devoid of faith, and heedless 
of the commands and words of the Prophet, ye 
pursue greedily earthly good, and allow our re- 
ligion to perish. People ! since the Russians have 
come among you, your brow has borne the seal 
of the curse ! In vain ye observe the Kamaz 
and the Khalbruks ; in vain ye frequent the 
mosques : Heaven disdains your rites and your 
prayers. The presence of the Unbelievers bars 
your access to the throne of Allah. Pray, per- 
form penance, but above all hasten to the holy 
war (Kazamet). Prepare yourselves for it by 
prayer, fasting, and penance ; the hour will come, 
and I give you now my benediction for the 
battle ! " 

From the day when this energetic harangue 
was delivered dates the birth of Muridism. The 
hearers were carried away by the old man's 
spirit and enthusiasm : the speech spread with 
the rapidity of lightning in the country far and 
wide. The disciples of Moollah Mohammed dis- 
persed themselves in the mountains, organizing 
insurrection, and reducing the general ferment 
into systematic action. Associations were formed 



84 



TRIBES OF THE CAUCASUS. 



in every part, which had each their defined object 
and their common worship, together with secret 
teachings, and speedily a general organization 
under fixed legal forms. 



85 



CHAPTER IX. 

OPPOSITION TO MTJEIDISM. — THE KAZAMET. — DISTUBBANCES 
IN THE EUSSIAN PBOYINCES. — ABSLAN KHAN. — HIS INTEB- 
VIEW WITH MOOLLAH MOHAMMED. — WAE BETWEEN PEE- 
SIA AND TUBKEY. — KHAN OE AYAEIA. — KAZI MOOLLAH. 

The doctrines of Moollah Mohammed were not 
received without opposition in certain quarters. 
Some of the Moollahs maintained that the Kha- 
lif (Sultan) alone had the right to declare the 
Kazamet, or war against the Unbelievers ; and 
likewise that the Koran forbids the w^ar when 
the Faithful are the weaker party, lest the Faith 
be exposed to danger. But these objections had 
no effect upon the mass of the people, who fol- 
lowed openly the teaching of Moollah Moham- 
med. The latter thenceforth lived in complete 
retirement, in his cell, leaving it only to perform 
service in the mosque. His piety, and the my- 
stery that attended his secluded life, enhanced 
the effect and influence of his doctrines and dis- 



86 



TRIBES 0E THE CAUCASUS. 



courses on the minds of all : the number of the 
initiated increased daily ; they acknowledged him 
as their Murshid, and called themselves Murids 
(teaching disciples, or apostles). 

At first these roaming Murids restricted their 
preaching mostly to penance, after the example 
of their master, Moollah Mohammed; but in 
a short time the insurrectionary movement in- 
creased, and they preached the war with fervour. 
The Murids visited every Aoul, or village, and 
collected the inhabitants ; then, standing upon a 
hill, and turning toward the North (Russia), they 
exclaimed, " Mussulmen ! arise — to the Kaza- 
met !" Every one who opposed them they beat 
with a wooden shaslca, or sabre, which they made 
on purpose. 

Beside the increasing predatory incursions and 
sallies of the independent mountaineers, disturb- 
ances also broke out in the districts occupied 
by, or dependent on, Russia, w 7 hich, although oc- 
curring singly, showed the general spread of the 
political ferment. On the occasion of a partial 
rising of this kind taking place at Kury, General 
Yermolof summoned Arslan, the Khan of Kazi- 
kumik and Kury, a dependant on Russia, to in- 
vestigate and suppress it. Arslan Khan desired 



ARSLAN KHAN. 



87 



Moollah Mohammed to appear with his followers, 
and defend themselves. 

On the high-road, not far from Kirag, near the 
village of Kassimkent, Arslan Khan met the blind 
old Murshid, surrounded by a large number of 
Murids and Moollahs. The Khan hastened up 
to Moollah Mohammed, and in an angry and 
menacing tone asked him how he could dare to 
hold such insurrectionary harangues. " Knowest 
thou not the superior might of the Russians, and 
dost thou not reflect how much innocent blood 
will be shed by thy fault?" 

" I know w^ell," replied Moollah Mohammed, 
"that the Russians are stronger than we, but 
Allah is far stronger still than they. We are, 
one and all, sinners, and need repentance : I do 
penance and pray ; I have withdrawn from the 
world, to obtain Allah's grace ; I do no man 
wrong." 

" But do not your followers roam over the 
country, preaching the Kazamet, and ill-treating 
all who oppose them ? Knowest thou not what 
misery you are bringing upon us?" 

" My Murids acknowledge the truth of the 
Scripture; they only remind the people of the 
commands of Allah and the Prophet • and if at 



88 



TRIBES OE THE CAUCASUS. 



times their zeal carries them away, to commit 
actions which are not allowed in every-day life, 
this only shows the people the more strongly 
what it is necessary to do. And thee too, 
Khan, I exhort to throw off the cares of the 
world, and to reflect whither we are all hasten- 
ing, the meanest slave as well as the greatest 
lord and prophet. There is no saving health, 
unless we acknowledge and attain to Allah's 
truth, and do his holy will according to the 
Shariat/ 5 

" Thy words are superfluous/ 5 answered Ar- 
slan : "I know my duties, and punctually fulfil 
the commands prescribed in the Koran, and the 
prayers of the Shariat/ 5 

" Thou liest!" exclaimed the Murshid. " Thou 
art a slave of the Unbelievers (Russians); and thy 
observance of the holy rites is therefore worth- 
less and unprofitable/ 5 

He had hardly uttered these words when the 
offended Khan felled the old man to the ground 
with a blow of his fist, and ordered his Nukars 
(attendants) to disperse the Murids and Moollahs, 
and to demand a fine of each. But the Khan 
soon saw, by the silence with which his orders 
were received, that he had gone too far : he had 



MOOLLAH MOHAMMED. 



89 



struck a holy man, a blind old man, and punished 
Moollahs and Murids for obeying a plain com- 
mand of the Koran. He called Moollah Moham- 
med to him, and begged him to forget the offence. 
" But I entreat thee/' he added, " let not thy 
Murids violate the Russian laws; for the Rus- 
sians would then order me to deliver thee up, and 
I should be obliged to choose between the duty 
which I have sworn to perform toward them, and 
the fear of drawing on me the wrath of Allah, if 
I delivered so holy an Alim as thou to the Rus- 
sians, who would seize on my Khanate and all 
my possessions. 5 ' 

" Thy offence against me God will forgive • but, 
O Khan, I counsel thee at least not to bind thy- 
self wholly and heartily to the Russians ; do not 
subjugate to them the people of Daghestan. If 
thou mayst not allow thy subjects to obey the 
Tarikat,* do not at least deter the other inhabi- 
tants of Daghestan from doing so. Such conduct 
may be politic, and prove of advantage to thee 
likewise : the more enemies the Russians have, 

* The authentic expositions of the Koran are divided into 
three parts : 1. the Makarifat, which treats of doctrines : — 2. 
the Tarikat, which expounds the morality of the Koran : — and 
3. the Shariat, which comprises the judicial portion, and also 
refers to the usages and observances of daily life. 



90 



TRIBES OF THE CAUCASUS. 



the more needful to them is thy friendship, and 
they will load thee with honours and presents ~ 
but when they have subjugated the whole of Da- 
ghestan, thou wilt be superfluous to them, and 
thou wilt lose thy power, thy influence, perhaps 
thy Khanate." 

Arslan Khan was inwardly convinced of the 
truth of Moollah Mohammed's words ; he loaded 
him with presents, but collected the fines from 
the other Moollahs, and informed General Yer- 
molof that he had restored order. Prom that 
time however he was no longer trusted. 

On his return to Jarach, Moollah Mohammed 
found an immense multitude awaiting his arrival, 
anxious to hear what had happened to him : he 
endeavoured to pacify them, and forbade them to 
take up arms until he should give the signal. 
Soon afterwards he summoned the chiefs in Ja- 
rach, and elected the Shikh-Shaban of Avaria 
(afterwards the celebrated leader known by the 
name of Kazi Moollah), laid his hand upon his 
head and gave him his benediction as the Kazi, 
the chief of the Kazamet, or holy war. He then 
addressed the chief in these words : — - 

" The Khan at of Kuril is under the power and 
rule of the Russians, bound hand and foot ; but 



KAZT MOOLLAH. 



91 



ye are free, and your duty it is to begin the war. 
In the name of the Prophet I command thee, 
Kazi Moollah, return to thy home, collect the 
people, arm them, and with the blessing of Allah 
begin the holy war ! Paradise awaits those who 
fall, every man who slays a Russian ; but woe to 
those who turn their backs on the Giaour !" 

Prom that time Moollah Mohammed took no 
active part in the movement ; in fact he did not 
again even preach, but lived in complete seclu- 
sion. Nevertheless Yermolof in 1825 ordered 
Arslan Khan to seize the Murshid, and deliver 
him up at Tiflis. Horul Beg received the charge 
to carry out this order ; he surprised the old man, 
and took him to Kurach, whence however by the 
aid of his friends he escaped to Tabassaran, and 
remained concealed there. 

Meanwhile the war which broke out between 
Persia and Turkey diverted the attention of the 
Russian Government in Caucasia from Daghe- 
stan. Kazi Moollah skilfully took advantage of 
this to increase the spread of Muridism, and to 
gain the entire eastern side of the Caucasus to 
his projects. Agents from Persia aided him, in- 
citing the people to insurrection, and promising 
speedy assistance. Nevertheless Kazi Moollah 



92 



TRIBES OF THE CAUCASUS. 



wisely abstained from any offensive operations 
until the year 1830, contenting himself with for- 
tifying his strength internally. He won over the 
mountaineers, not only by his eloquence, but even 
employed force when they resisted his summons, 
enforcing obedience in numerous villages, which 
he obliged to give him hostages. He also com- 
pelled the hereditary district chiefs, the Khans 
and Begs, to embrace Muridism. In the Khan- 
ate of Avaria however his efforts wholly failed. 

The Khan of Avaria w r as dead • his son was 
only in his fourteenth year, and his mother ruled 
for him. A band of fanatical Murids entered the 
village of Asbatli. Bakhu Bike, the mother of 
the young Khan Nunzal, sent to Kazi Moollah, 
desiring him not to go to Khunzach, where she 
resided ; but saying that she was ready to send 
him one of her other sons as a hostage. Kazi 
Moollah, without heeding her request, pressed for- 
ward at the head of 8000 Murids, into the land 
as far as Khunzach, and a portion of his troops 
even entered the city. The inhabitants were in 
despair ; they had no confidence in their youthful 
Khan. His mother then, sword in hand, appeared 
among the helpless assembly of the inhabitants. 
" I see/ 5 she exclaimed, " you are unfit to use 



FAILURE OF THE RUSSIANS. 



93 



the sword ; give it up to us women, and clothe 
yourselves in our tchedras (linen garments)." The 
men were put to shame by these words • they 
took courage, threw themselves on the enemy, 
headed by their young Khan, and routed them. 
Kazi Moollah was wounded in the head, and es- 
caped with difficulty. 

These reverses however did not daunt Kazi 
Moollah : he assembled his followers, and formed 
his stronghold in the forests of Tchunkeskan. 
Russian detachments made frequent excursions 
thither, but without giving him any serious trou- 
ble ; and even considerable expeditions, under 
General Rosen and Prince Bekovitch, were at- 
tended with no success. These failures on the 
part of the Russians served only to increase the 
fame of Kazi Moollah, and his respect in the eyes 
of the superstitious Lesghians. " See ye not/ 5 
he would exclaim, " the clear proofs that we and 
our holy task are under the protection of Allah ? 
To gain the victory, ye need only to pray ; Allah 
strikes the foe with blindness, so that they can- 
not discover us. See ye not how they shrink 
back before an invisible power?" 

Kazi Moollah now assumed the offensive, one 
after another, he took Azlebi, Parent, and Tarku. 



94 



TRIBES OF THE CAUCASUS. 



He besieged Burnaya, and was on the point of 
taking it, when General Disterlo arrived just in 
time to relieve the place. Kazi Moollah was de- 
feated, and retired into his forests ; in ten days 
however he appeared before Vnezapnaya, but failed 
to take it. On the approach of General Emanuel, 
he retreated. Subsequently he fought a bloody 
battle at the village of Aukh, in which the 
Murids were victorious. In his forest retreat he 
received, in August 1831, a deputation from Ta- 
bassaran, who announced to him that the people 
had embraced his doctrines, that Heaven had in 
consequence blessed them, that they had fought 
and conquered the Giaours on Mount Karnauk, 
and had driven them entirely out of Tabassaran. 

An event occurred, which added essential im- 
portance to his position. In 1831 a report was 
suddenly spread abroad (which proved to be a 
false one), that the Persians had unexpectedly 
invaded the southern provinces. All the Russian 
troops in Daghestan in consequence were moved 
south, to Shirvan, only two battalions remain- 
ing in garrison at Derbent. The whole country 
of Daghestan thus fell at once into the power of 
Kazi Moollah. Tabassaran alone, in the south, 
remained faithful to the Russians : it was conse- 



KAZI MOOLLAH RESIGNS. 



95 



quently devastated. Kazi Moollah laid siege to 
Derbent ; but, after eight days' blockade, he was 
forced to retire, on the approach of General Ka- 
khanof. He then went to northern Tabassaran, 
where he joined the family of the Murshid, 
Moollah Mohammed, and married his daughter. 
He afterwards attacked Kizliar, and returned 
home with considerable booty. 

But the star of Kazi Moollah now began to 
decline. He repaired to Ghimry, and resigned 
the command of the Muriels, in the camp at 
Agatzeh-Kale, to Gamzad Beg. Colonel Mikla- 
shevski attacked and completely defeated him. 



96 



CHAPTER X. 

* DEATH OF KAZI MOOLLAH. — - RENEWED FERVOUR OF THE 
MURIDS. — G-AMZAD BEGr CHOSEN COMMANDER. — HIS OVER- 
TURES TO THE KHAN t-'F AVARIA. — TREACHEROUS CONDUCT 
OF GHAMZAD. — DEATH OF THE KHAN. — SCHAMYL CHOSEN 
LEADER. 

Eakly in 1832 Kazi Moollah gained a few more 
victories, on the line between Vladikaukas and 
Kizliar. But General Rosen now repaired in 
person to Tchetchenia, plundered it, and crossing 
the Soulak proceeded to Ghimry, the birthplace 
of Kazi Moollah. Since his unsuccessful retreat 
from Derbent the latter had lost the confidence 
of the mountaineers, and Daghestan was now all 
but lost. He summoned Gamzad Beg to his aid, 
but the latter refused to obey the call. He then 
collected all his followers around him, and ad- 
dressed them in these words :— " I see my end 
drawing near : I die here upon the spot where 
I was born ; I die for the holy truth of the 



DEATH OF KAZI MOOLLAH. 



9? 



Tarikat, for the holy Shariat. Let him alone who 
is prepared to die remain with me!" 

The battle at Ghimry was obstinate and 
bloody : at length the village was taken. Kazi 
Moollah defended himself in his house, and fell, 
with all its inhabitants. The Russians exposed 
his dead body, as they found it, to instil a salu- 
tary terror into the captive women and children. 
The effect produced was precisely the reverse : 
death restored to Kazi Moollah the reputation of 
sanctity, which he appeared to have lost at the 
close of his life. The dead body appeared with 
one hand grasping his beard, and the other point- 
ing to heaven ; but this is the attitude of the 
Mussulman in prayer, and all the spectators at 
once believed that Kazi Moollah had breathed 
his last in a moment of fervent prayer ; they re- 
garded this as a fresh proof of his sanctity and 
inspiration, and the belief in his doctrines gained 
new strength. The Murshid, the aged Moollah 
Mohammed, repaired to Gamzad Beg at Irgana, 
and gave him his benediction, as the chief of the 
holy war and successor of Kazi Moollah. 

This appointment must be regarded as ill-ad- 
vised and unsuitable ; but it is only a proof how 
deep root Muridism had already gained, and what 



98 



TRIBES OE THE CAUCASUS. 



power it had acquired, that even under this bad 
management it did not dissolve. To Kazi Mool- 
lah it was owing that this danger was averted : 
the theocratic, political, and military state, which 
he had established, maintained its existence and 
efficiency, and subsequently this has been further 
organized with admirable skill by Schamyl. 

The newly-appointed commander, Imam el 
Azem Gamzad Beg, was born at Stuzal ; he was 
of middle stature and somewhat stout ; his dress 
was the Circassian one, but entirely white : over 
his cap he wore a turban, — green, white, or 
black, according to circumstances. On the day 
of his entry into Khunzach he had a black turban, 
because the Prophet wore one of that colour on 
his entry into Mecca. Five Russian deserters, 
in the Russian uniform, constantly accompanied 
him, which caused the report among the Rus- 
sians that he had a Russian guard of honour. 

Gamzad Beg maintained a passive attitude in 
1833 : he sought first to consolidate his power 
in the interior. At the close of that year he in- 
vaded and conquered the country of Gergebii, 
and defeated the Khans of Mekhtuli and Akusha, 
who were allied to the S chain. Khal of Tarku. 

The richest and most powerful prince of this 



GAM Z AD BEG. 99 

district was the Khan of Avaria, who had in 
former times received extraordinary honour from 
the Sultan. Gamzad Beg entertained a deep 
feeling of hatred and envy for this Khan, who 
in the general opinion far surpassed him in rank 
and importance ; and he determined to seize upon 
his throne. After conquering the intervening 
territory, and enlisting under his standard all 
capable of bearing arms, willing or unwilling, he 
invaded Avaria at the head of 33,000 men. He 
sent offers to the young Khan of uniting with 
him, couched in such plausible and even humble 
language, that the Khan immediately perceived 
the deceitful snare, and haughtily refused them, 
His mother Bakhu Bike, however, who five years 
before had, by her resolution and heroism, de- 
feated the attack of Kazi Moollah, saw clearly 
that valour was here unavailing, and that there 
was no assistance to be hoped for : she therefore 
pressed her son to ride into Gamzad' s camp, and 
conclude a peace on any terms. The proud 
young Khan refused. After in vain using tears 
and entreaties, she said, " My son, I know not 
whether it be fear or pride that makes you act 
thus ; but as your resolution is taken, so is mine ; 
I will myself go to the camp of Gamzad Beg." 

f 2 



100 



TEIBES OF THE CAUCASUS. 



The young Khan now, in his turn, entreated 
his mother not to expose herself to such a dan- 
ger. At length it was resolved that Omar Beg, 
the Khan's youngest brother, a lad of sixteen, 
should bear the message of peace to Gamzad 
Beg. The issue of the negotiation was awaited 
with impatience. Hours passed on. In vain the 
Khan and his mother gazed anxiously from the 
high terrace in the direction of the enemy's camp, 
— the young lad did not return ! The mother's 
fears at length overpowered her; she earnestly 
implored her son to ride to the camp, and ascer- 
tain the fate of his brother, and to offer terms of 
peace on any terms. 

The Khan could no longer resist his mother's 
tears. " As you are determined on my death," 
he replied, " I go to meet it !" He and his Nu- 
kars (vassals) leaped on their horses, and rode off 
to the enemy's camp, their minds filled with sad 
presentiment. When they had proceeded about 
half the distance, a violent thunderstorm came on 
so suddenly, that instantly the streams overflowed, 
while the lightning flashed around them, and the 
thunder rolled incessantly overhead. The Khan's 
charger reared, and refused to stir ; his supersti- 
tious followers regarded this as a warning from 



THE KHAN OE AVAR! A. 



101 



lieaven for them to return ; but, on seeing them 
again, the indignation of his mother knew no 
bounds, and she reproached him bitterly for his 
cowardice. Burning with shame, and gnashing 
his teeth with rage, the Khan threw himself again 
upon his horse, and galloped at full speed, fol- 
lowed by only eight Nukars, to the hostile camp. 
Gamzad came out to meet him, received him 
with an air of the utmost respect and humility, 
and conducted him to his tent, where he found 
his brother. 

Gamzad however soon found an opportunity 
to begin a quarrel ; he declared that one of the 
Khan's Nukars had stolen one of his horses ; 
and as the Khan had paid no heed to the com- 
plaint, nor punished the offender, Gamzad treated 
this as a personal insult, and was himself about 
to put the Nukar to death. Tired with rage, 
the Khan declared that he would allow no one to 
punish his Nukar. High words ensued. On a 
sudden Gamzad quitted the tent, and made a 
sign to the Murids standing in front of it. In- 
stantly several shots were fired into the tent, aimed 
at the eight Nukars, who were standing together: 
they all fell dead on the spot. Tchonan Beg, 
Gamzad's nephew, seized his pistol and aimed 



102 



TRIBES OF THE CAUCASUS. 



at the Khan's brother, who perceiving the move- 
ment fired at the same instant : Omar Beg fell 
dead, and Tchonan Beg mortally wounded.* 

The Khan now rushed out of the tent, with 
drawn shaska (sabre), and with herculean strength 
cut clown all before him : each stroke struck 
off a head, or cleft a man to his girdle. The 
Murids, speechless with terror, hardly dared to 

# The following incident manifests the general deep vene- 
ration and attachment in the East to the princely rulers. 
Tchonan Beg, when mortally wounded, called his father to his 
side, and said to him, " Listen, father ! I have hut a few mo- 
ments to live. I have raised my hand against the son of my 
liege lord : Allah has willed that I should be a criminal ! You 
have no other son — fulfil my last wish ; save Bulatch Beg, the 
youngest and only brother of our Khan, and adopt him as 
your child, and guard him as the apple of your eye, that he 
may not fall into the hands of the wicked, who wish to slay 
him. He will one day be the Khan of Avaria, and reward 
you for it : perhaps this act will procure me pardon for my 
misdeed. " Tchonan Beg expired immediately he had uttered 
these words. The old man at once took Bulatch Beg, and 
concealed him in his Aoul. The Murids however discovered 
him: the boy, who was only twelve years old, exclaimed, 
<c You have killed my mother, my brother, my whole house — 
let me live, I am so young ! Take me to my cousin Arslan 
Khan, of Kazikumik, — he will reward you in a princely 
manner." But the Murids were merciless, and carried him 
to Tcherakul, where he threw himself from a rock into the 
torrent of the Kolsu. With him the ancient princely race of 
Avaria became extinct. 



TREACHERY OF GAMZAD. 



103 



defend themselves. The Khan received a wound 
in his face : covering it with his left hand, he 
laid about him with his right, cutting down 
every one who came near him : eye-witnesses of 
the scene declare that he slew above twenty men, 
and among them the brother-in-law of Gamzad. 
His formidable strength, and the strong feeling 
of old respect to the sacred person of the Khan, 
disarmed resistance, and all took to flight. But 
presently from a distance a shot was fired, fol- 
lowed by others, and the Khan fell dead. 

Thus terminated the life of Khan Abu Nun- 
zal, at twenty-two years of age, — the handsomest 
and noblest man of his people, — a victim to trea- 
chery. When the news of the event reached the 
camp, the mountaineers w r ere seized with panic, 
accustomed as they had been from childhood to 
honour the Khan of Avaria as the first of princes. 
The people fled in all directions, until at length 
the Murid Schamyl succeeded in rallying them, 
and inducing them to return. 

Gamzad Beg now repaired with his military 
force to Khunzach, the chief town of Avaria, 
which he took without resistance. He slew the 
Khan's mother, with the rest of the family, and 
thus became sole master of Avaria. He next at- 



104 



TRIBES OF THE CAUCASUS. 



tempted to conquer Dargo likewise, an indepen- 
dent country, the inhabitants of which were fa- 
vourably inclined to the Russians ; but in this at- 
tempt he failed ; he was defeated, and obliged to 
retire into Avaria.* 

A second time Gamzad Beg prepared to invade 
Dargo, but before he could carry his plan into exe- 
cution, he fell by the hand of two brothers, Osman 
and Hadji Murad. These men were the foster- 
brothers of Omar Beg, the second brother of the 
Khan Abu Nunzal of Avaria. They had served 
as Murids under Gamzad ; but their father re- 
proached them with their faithlessness to the race 
of their native princes of Avaria, and instigated 
them to avenge the death of their foster-brother 
Omar Beg. They did so, and shot Gamzad Beg 
in the mosque at Khunzach.f The younger bro- 
ther Hadji Murad escaped, and seized upon the 
throne of Avaria. 

Although a Murid, Gamzad Beg lacked enthu- 
siasm, and he was therefore not regarded by the 
people, like Kazi Moollah, as a prophet sent by 

# The manuscript communicated to the author by his friend, 
mentioned above, ends here. 

t This murder of Gamzad Beg is graphically related by 
Bodenstedt, in his ' Yolker des Caucasus/ p. 307. 



SCHAMYL CHOSEN COMMANDER. 105 



Allah. His ambition and zeal were not stimu- 
lated by the religious motive of fighting against 
the Unbelievers, but he took advantage of his 
position of commander of the holy war, merely 
to promote his own personal interests, and to 
indulge his ambition. 

After the death of Gamzad Beg, the conduct 
of the war devolved as of course, and without 
any further nomination, on Imam Schamyl ; the 
old Murshid Moollah Mohammed, who had con- 
secrated for the office Kazi Moollah and Gam- 
zad Beg, having died. Schamyl' s brilliant mar- 
tial qualifications, in which he surpassed all the 
other Murids, pointed him out as the proper per- 
son for such a command.* Schamyl had been 
the favourite pupil and faithful companion, as 
well as the most valiant and skilful warrior, of 
Kazi Moollah. On the taking of Ghimry he fell 
at Kazi's side, pierced by two balls : how he 
contrived to save his life is unknown. Under 
Gamzad Beg, likewise, Schamyl was by far the 
most distinguished warrior. 

# In the first instance Tashav Hadji offered himself as a 
candidate for the command, but he voluntarily submitted, in 
1837, to Schamyl, who was far his superior in ability. 



106 



CHAPTER XI. 

IMAM SCHAMYL. — HIS PEESON AND CHAEACTEE. — DEFEAT OF 
THE RUSSIANS. — HIS EXTEAOEDINAEY ESCAPES.— SCHAMYL's 
INFLUENCE OVEE THE MUEIDS. — CAMPAIGNS OF 1839-1843. 
— GENEEALS GEABBE AND GOLOVIN. 

Imam Schamyl, like Kazi Moollah, was born in 
the village of Ghimry, in the country of the Kois- 
subulins, in 1797. In stature he is not tall, but 
of very noble and handsome proportions. He 
is not by nature physically strong, but he has 
acquired remarkable power and vigour by every 
kind of bodily exercise. His head, of a beautiful 
and regular shape, his aquiline nose, small mouth, 
blue eyes, blond hair and beard, and delicate 
white skin, seem to point rather to a Germanic 
than an Eastern extraction. His hands and feet 
are formed with the most beautiful symmetry ; 
his mien and every movement are proud and 
dignified. 

From his childhood Schamyl manifested an 



SCHAMYL. 



107 



iron character, a calm dignity in his whole de- 
meanour, which nothing conld shake. He court- 
ed solitude, and maintained a reserve towards 
every one ; at the same time he studied with 
ardent zeal under his master, Moollah Djelal 
Eddin, to w r hom he has always been affection- 
ately attached, and to whom he still show r s the 
deepest veneration and unreserved filial obedi- 
ence. Entire days and nights has he passed in 
the rocky defiles of his native mountains, buried 
in the study of the Koran, the Arabian theoso- 
phy, and the doctrines of Soofism, together with 
the ancient Persian heroic legends and songs. He 
has manifestly faith in himself, and in his voca- 
tion as a prophet sent by Allah. Whilst gifted 
with fiery eloquence, his extraordinary talents as 
a general are unquestioned. 

Upon the death of Gamzad Beg the greater 
part of the Murids in Avaria were slain. Hadji 
Murad defended the country and the throne 
against Schamyl with great skill, and allied him- 
self closely to Russia. Schamyl's first exploit, 
on assuming the command, was to defeat the 
Russian General Lasskoi, who had taken his 
native village Ghimry. Nevertheless he failed to 
obtain any firm footing in Avaria • the inhabit 



108 



TRIBES OF THE CAUCASUS. 



tants had a hatred against the Murids, which was 
increased by the treacherous murder of their 
Khan. 

We pass over the series of engagements be- 
tween Schamyl and the Russians, which have 
been repeatedly published ; how far the accounts 
we have received are correct and trustworthy w$ 
cannot say : one thing is well known, that he 
carried on a guerilla warfare, with a genius and 
energy scarcely paralleled in history. 

On several occasions Schamyl was in situations 
of desperate peril, but he always contrived to 
escape by boldness or stratagem. In more than 
one instance he ostensibly submitted to the Rus- 
sians ; but no sooner had they in consequence 
withdrawn, than he threw off the mask, and em- 
ployed the opportunity to increase his influence 
and power : he represented to his followers that 
the Russians were struck blind by Allah, and 
that in the most advantageous positions, when 
they had him nearly in their power, their reason 
suddenly forsook them, their sight was darkened, 
and, unaware of their advantages, they left him 
full liberty to escape. The Russians reproached 
him with deceit and treachery, but his conduct 
only raised him in the eyes of his own people, 



RUSSIAN CAMPAIGNS. 



109 



as the Mohammedans regard every breach of faith 
with Infidels as a venial act. . 

In 1837 Schamyl apparently submitted to Ge- 
neral Fesi, and thus induced him to evacuate 
the country with his troops ; in consequence of 
which stratagem, Schamyrs influence increased 
to such a pitch, that his old rival Tashav Hadji 
voluntarily submitted to him, and many of the 
wavering and even hostile tribes joined his 
ranks. 

In the years 1839 to 1843 the Russians made 
great efforts to conquer the country. General 
Grabbe, a very' skilful officer, took the field 
against Schamyl with great energy : the latter 
was gradually hemmed in more and more, until 
at length he was driven with a few thousand 
of his most faithful followers into the almost 
impregnable rock-fortress of Akhulgo. General 
Grabbe at first contemplated starving him out, 
but Schamyl had accumulated immense stores 
of every kind. The place was regularly besieged, 
and was at length taken, after incredible efforts ; 
but Schamyl had escaped, — he was nowhere to 
be found in the fortress ! 

On another occasion he escaped, in a perfectly 
mysterious manner, from almost certain death or 



110 TRIBES OF THE CAUCASUS. 



imprisonment : this happened when he fell at the 
side of Kazi Moollah, wounded by two balls : he 
was thought to be dead j but after a short time 
he on a sudden appeared again among his as- 
sembled Murids, and exposed to view his bared 
breast, on which the wounds were still visible. 
With one voice they exclaimed, " Allah has re- 
called Schamyl from the dead, to rule over the 
living ! " 

The Avarians once surrounded the Murids in 
the castle of Khunzach, and set fire to it; all 
perished by fire or the sword, Schamyl alone 
effecting his escape. But these escapes were al- 
ways a profound mystery, Schamyl representing 
them as attributable to an especial miracle from 
Heaven. 

In the year 1841, the Russians, under the 
command of the Governor- General Golovin, 
opened a campaign with a great display of power, 
but which was unattended with any success. In 
the same manner another expedition, in 1842, 
completely failed; and even General Grabbe, 
whom the Mountaineers most feared, next to 
Yermolof and Sass, won no laurels and was re- 
called. The Georgian Prince Argutinski Dol- 
goruki alone met with any success at that pe- 



TACTICS OF SCHAMYL. 



Ill 



riod, gaming possession of the Khanate of Kazi- 
kumik. 

One instance of Schamyl's warlike character 
and tactics may suffice.* In the autumn of 
1841 the Russians made an expedition against 
Tchetchenia. They forced their way into the 
country, exposed to harassing attacks on every 
side : a constant fire was kept up from behind 
every bush, tree, and rock ; and they advanced 
amidst martial shouts from their unseen ene- 
mies : but the Mountaineers nowhere appeared 
in any force, nor engaged in any battle, ex- 
cept near the Asule, where bloody combats took 
place, which ended however in no decided re- 
sults. The Russians burned down the villages 
and the stores of hay, and carried off the women 
and children, and some herds of cattle : all these 
spoils they were obliged to keep with the main 
body of the army ; for no sooner had they passed, 
than the Tchetchens appeared again and ha- 
rassed their rear. The expedition ended in 
October, without any great advantage having 
been gained. 

Scarcely had the Russian troops dispersed to 
their different quarters, when Schamyl appeared 

* Compare Bodenstedt, 'Die Volker des Caucasus,' p. 543. 



112 TRIBES OE THE CAUCASUS. 



in the country they had quitted, at the head 
of his followers. He immediately compelled ail 
who were capable of bearing arms to join him, 
threatening all who held back with a fine of a 
silver rouble, or fifty Russian lashes with the 
knout. In a few days his army increased to 
15,000 men. With the rapidity of lightning he 
invaded the country of the Kumyks, allies of 
the Russians, burned their villages, slew or took 
prisoners the inhabitants, drove off all the cattle, 
and advanced to Kizliar. The Colonel in com- 
mand there went out to meet him, with a few 
hundred men and two cannon • but they were all 
killed, and the guns taken. The commandants 
of the two fortresses, between which Schamyl 
had advanced, sallied out, to form a junction 
at his rear and cut off his retreat. They 
failed : Schamyl had effected his retreat, ere 
they could attain their object. The Russian 
Generals were only two versts apart ; Schamyl 
pressed on between them with his troops, which 
he rapidly formed into three columns, attacked 
the Russians with two of these, right and left, 
and, protected by the third, carried off to the 
mountains cannon, prisoners, and forty thousand 
head of cattle. 



PRINCE W0R0NZ0F. 



113 



This exploit raised the fame of Schamyl to an 
incredible pitch • at the same time it was an era 
in the war, inasmuch as the Mountaineers for the 
first time captured two pieces of artillery, — the 
Czar's pistols, as they called them. 

In 1842 General Grabbe undertook an expedi- 
tion into the country of the Gumbetes, which en- 
tirely failed. Grabbe, Sass, and Golovin were re- 
called, the whole plan of operations was changed, 
and simply defensive measures were adopted; 
the only object being to cut off all supplies to 
the Mountaineers, and thus starve them out. 
This system was pursued for some years, by 
Governor- General Von Neidhart, who succeeded 
to the command, but without any signal success. 
This General had great administrative talent, by 
the exercise of which he has effected much good 
in this department. In a military point of view, 
the conquest or pacification of the mountain tribes 
has not advanced a single step. 

In 1845 Prince Woronzof, one of the most 
distinguished and noble men whom Uussia pos- 
sesses, assumed the command in the Caucasian 
war, with almost royal authority. He retained 
the administration until 1854. During the early 
part of his government the relations of Russia 



114 



TRIBES OF THE CAUCASUS. 



with the Mountaineers became much more fa- 
vourable ; and the western tribes, who have the 
collective name of Circassians, were almost wholly 
pacified. The war, properly speaking, had here 
long been extinguished, and only occasionally 
small predatory bands appeared, who contented 
themselves with capturing a few prisoners, with 
a view to obtain a ransom, or carrying off fifty 
to a hundred head of cattle to the mountains. 
Prince Woronzof had intercourse with the chiefs, 
and is said to have given them rich presents, 
and succeeded greatly in winning their attach- 
ment. He organized an active trade with the 
Circassians, and permitted the sale of boys and 
girls for Turkey. 

The war against Schamyl meanwhile remained 
in the same suspense. Woronzof attempted, by 
burning and cutting down long paths through 
the forests, to open the country by degrees ;* 
but the forests were too dense, and the land 
beyond them too mountainous and inaccessible, 
to render this work successful. He effected little 

# Napoleon did something similar to this, when he inter- 
sected the Vendee by long and broad roads. By this means 
the nerve of defence was materially severed in the forests, 
and the resistance in 1830-31 was speedily overcome. 



STATE OF THE CAUCASUS. 



115 



here in conquest. Since the breaking out and 
the continuance of the war with Turkey and the 
Western Powers, the communication between the 
Caucasus and Constantinople has become per- 
fectly open. The Mountaineers have been greatly 
assisted by supplies of guns, ammunition; and 
provisions ; and, although little authentic infor- 
mation has been received, it appears to be quite 
clear that the Russians have lost all influence over 
the Mountaineers, that Schamyl at the present 
moment is the acknowledged head of all the in- 
habitants of the Caucasus, and that the Russians 
are now restricted to act on the defensive. 

The Circassians gladly accept the supplies of 
ammunition, salt, etc., from Constantinople and 
the Western Powers ; but any inference from 
this that they would welcome an alliance with 
the Turks and the Western Powers, is quite er- 
roneous : they by no means desire the vicinity 
of the latter, which they would regard as equally 
obnoxious and fatal to them with that of the Rus- 
sians. Indeed they might probably in the end 
agree even better with the Russians. Whether 
Schamyl himself would consent to a co-operation 
with the Western Powers appears, from his cha- 
racter, very problematical : he desires to rule, 



\ 



116 TRIBES OF THE CAUCASUS. 

but undoubtedly not to be subject to the Sultan. 
Whether one of the many emissaries sent to him 
through Circassia has really ever reached him, 
is very doubtful : they have generally been taken 
prisoners, robbed, nay murdered, by the Circas- 
sians . 



117 



CHAPTER XII. 

CITIL AND MILITAEY ORGANIZATION. — EEEOEMS IN TUEKEY, 
PEESIA, AND EGYPT. — MEHEMET ALI. — EUEOPEAN DIPLO- 
MACY. — SCHAMYL'S POLICY. — HIS PEETENDED INSPIEATION. 
— BLOOD EEYENGE. — CODE OE LAWS. — STEPS TO PAEADISE. 

Great as Schaniyl's military exploits undoubt- 
edly are, his talents for organization and admi- 
nistration surpass even these. Since he has had 
the command of his country, he has organized 
a government complete in itself, an admirable 
military constitution, and a regular legislation, 
which has now stood the test of many years. 

The forms of the civil and military constitution 
in the Mohammedan States are based upon the 
laws of their religion, modified only according to 
the national customs and bias of Arabs, Per- 
sians, and Turks. Since Mohammedanism has 
declined, and its spiritual power has waned, these 
forms of government have shared the general 
decay. The bond which still holds these States 



118 TRIBES OF THE CAUCASUS. 



together is that element of nationality and com- 
munity of faith, which becomes especially power- 
ful in a war like the present. It must not be 
forgotten, that the Arabs, Persians, and Turks, 
with their Caucasian admixture of blood, are 
akin to the noblest and most highly-gifted na- 
tions. Hence we see the fact, inexplicable to 
many, that, whilst Turkey is scarcely able to up- 
hold itself longer as a State, yet in the camp 
the Empire of the Turks always exhibits life 
and vigour. The Mohammedan rulers have long 
seen and recognized the superiority of the Chris- 
tian States ; but they have fallen into the error of 
imagining that this arises merely from outward 
forms, and that it only requires these forms to be 
imitated and adopted, to annul this superiority 
of the Christian nations. 

Half a century ago an attempt was made to 
introduce into Turkey European institutions : 
the Sultan Selim paid with his life for the at- 
tempt. Since then an amazing change has taken 
place, especially in the new military organization. 
It is undeniable, that the European armies of 
Turkey have shown great skill and valour in 
the present war : whether this is attributable to 
the reform in their organization, to European in- 



MOHAMMEDAN REFORMS. 



119 



struction and command, or to the inherent mar- 
tial spirit of the nation, which readily adopts 
these improvements, is a question we must leave. 

In Persia similar attempts at reform have 
been made, and partially carried out, but with 
much less success, probably because the warlike 
spirit of the nation has almost become extinct. 

This reform in the system of organization 
has been pursued the furthest in the Arabian 
branch of Mohammedanism. In Egypt Mehemet 
Ali has remodelled not only his army, but the 
whole civil government, entirely upon a European 
system ; and, ostensibly at least, his measures 
were crowned with success ; but, although ap- 
parently dictated by an enlightened policy, this 
new system was grafted upon a spirit of the 
most fearful caprice and despotism, certainly 
carried out with wonderful energy. Had he 
succeeded in overturning the empire of the Os- 
mans, and in founding a new Arabian one at 
Constantinople, he might probably have averted 
for a time the downfall of Mohammedanism. A 
vigorous Oriental empire of this character might 
perhaps have satisfied the demands of a Euro- 
pean state policy, to which such an empire (at 
the present moment that of Turkey) seems to be 



120 



TRIBES OF THE CAUCASUS. 



a bitter necessity. But the timid European di- 
plomacy, which shrank from any departure from 
the beaten tract, and strove to uphold the totter- 
ing existence of Turkey at all hazards, in order 
to adhere to the traditions of the past, prevented 
this ; it annihilated the fleets of the Viceroy, re- 
pulsed his army from Syria, and thus destroyed 
his power of conquest.* Such favourable oppor- 
tunities, once lost, never return ; and the diplo- 
macy of Europe now contemplates the chances 
of the future, blind to the issue of events and 
powerless to control them. 

* In saying this, we protest expressly agaiost the charge 
of partisanship. In the victory of Christianity we recognize 
merely the point in the world's history to which all lines of 
fate converge : Mohammedanism, in all its phases, must die 
out, when it has fulfilled the purpose of its mission. We 
speak here simply in the spirit of the temporary state policy 
of Europe. Austria, France, and England viewed the matter 
differently ; and instead of securing, in a powerful and well- 
organized empire under Mehemet Ali, a really efficient bul- 
wark against Russia, they preferred propping up the miser- 
able Government of Turkey. Russia alone acted at that time 
with wisdom and consistency : to her the preservation of a 
Turkish empire was a political necessity, — nay, it is so even 
at the present moment ! and if "the sick man" could, by any 
means, be kept from dying, no Power would even now do 
more to effect this than Russia herself. But should he die, in 
spite of all the efforts of England and France, the question of 
inheritance arises — what then ? 



schamyl's policy. 



121 



Scliamyl likewise is perfectly aware that a 
Power like Russia cannot be opposed with any 
hope of success, or even safety, except by the aid 
of organization and discipline ; and he appears 
to have established such, both civil and military, 
fulfilling all the requirements of his position, 
with remarkable genius, deep intelligence, and 
persevering energy. 

Schamyl has formed an entirely different con- 
ception of his task to Mehemet Ali's : instead of, 
like the latter, copying servilely the European 
forms and civil institutions, and military disci- 
pline, he founds all his institutions upon a reli- 
gious and national basis, such as he finds exist- 
ing, and he adopts European forms and practices 
only as far as they appear to him needful, practi- 
cal, and applicable. 

The whole of Schamyl's social and civil orga- 
nization rests on a theocratic basis. Allah has 
set the Caucasus as a barrier or protecting Avail 
to the Empire of the Faithful, against Gog and 
Magog, against the Unbelievers ; there he has 
planted the mountain races, and appointed them 
the watchful guards of this frontier defence ; their 
duty it is to combat to the last with the Un- 
believers, whose hostility and attacks grow ever 

G 



122 



TRIBES OF THE CAUCASUS. 



fiercer as the world's judgement approaches. But 
as the Khalif is weak, and surrounded by trai- 
tors and infidels, Allah, to meet this danger, has 
raised up prophets and leaders of the holy war. 
Kazi Moollah was the first consecrated and ap- 
pointed to this task, and through him Allah 
made known his will; Gamzad Beg succeeded, 
and the office has now devolved on Schamyl. 
To these men the Faithful are bound to render 
unconditional obedience. 

Schamyl declares openly and solemnly to the 
Murids and the people, that he has direct re- 
velations from Allah and the Prophets, and at 
important moments receives their immediate 
commands. Before engaging in any great un- 
dertaking, Schamyl prepares himself by religious 
practices ; he retires into a cavern, or shuts him- 
self up closely: no one is allowed to approach him. 
For three weeks he remains in seclusion, praying 
and fasting, and absorbed in the study of the 
holy books. On the last evening he summons 
the leaders and Moollahs, and communicates to 
them the revelations and commands which Mo- 
hammed, under the form of a dove, has imparted 
to him. He then goes forth among the people, 
who are collected in large multitudes before 



PROPHETIC MISSION. 



123 



his courtyard ; he prays, recites verses from the 
Koran, and declares with a loud voice what 
Allah and the Prophet have commanded. The 
people all sing a solemn hymn, the men draw 
their daggers, and renew their oath to remain 
true to the Faith, and to extirpate the Unbeliev- 
ers. They then all disperse, crying aloud, " Allah 
is great, Mohammed is his first Prophet, and 
Schamyl his second/ 5 * 

The prophetic mission of Kazi Moollah under- 
went continual fluctuations of opinion among the 
people ; sometimes they believed on him, at other 
times doubted, according as he was fortunate 
or unsuccessful. He was nearly deserted toward 
the close of his life, and it was only his death 
that fully confirmed the belief in his mission. 

The belief in the prophetic character of 
Schamyl grew up at first gradually, but it is 
now perfectly established. Even under defeat 
no one has dared to ascribe any blame to him ; 
the disaster is attributed to the fault of others, 
and regarded as a trial inflicted by Allah upon 
the people. At the present moment there is pro- 
bably not one of the Faithful in the Caucasus 
who doubts that Schamyl has the mission of an 

* Compare Bodenstedt, p. 487. 



124 TRIBES OF THE CAUCASUS. 



inspired prophet from Allah. In consequence, 
he everywhere meets with unreserved obedience, 
and has performed incredible exploits. 

The old sectarian hatred between Sunnites 
and Shiites has been completely appeased by 
Schamyl in the Caucasus : the new doctrines, 
the new revelations, which the lips of the Pro- 
phet proclaim, have dissolved the old disputes, 
and reconciled all differences of opinion. 

There are more than fifty peoples in the Cau- 
casus, all differing in origin, language, manners, 
character, and modes of thought ; and these races 
are divided into innumerable clans. They have 
always remained perfectly independent, one of 
another : they were either democracies, or aris- 
tocracies under the rule of petty hereditary native 
princes. No power has ever been able to esta- 
blish here a monarchy. Although some of these 
mountain tribes have been occasionally in a cer- 
tain kind of dependence on the adjacent nations, 
yet the entire population have never formed an 
integral part of any monarchy. At the present 
time all appear bound together by a powerful 
religious fervour, a common faith in the Pro- 
phet, and a deep hatred against the Unbelievers. 
Here may perhaps be the germ of a future 



SCHAMYl/s REFORMS. 



125 



monarchy under the Prophet. It is true that 
such a supposition rests upon the head of a 
single man : at Schamyrs death, probably all this 
organization and union would fall to the ground: 
hitherto no one, except him, has appeared among 
these Mountaineers possessing similar command- 
ing talents. 

Schamyl has even succeeded in greatly re- 
stricting the fearful custom of blood-revenge, 
which for centuries has cursed all the peoples 
and races of the Caucasus ; this he has ef- 
fected, by referring disputes of this kind to the 
spiritual jurisdiction of the Moollah; and even 
here, where formerly only anger and passion 
ruled, ready obedience has for the most part 
succeeded. If Schamyl once puts down the cus- 
tom of blood-revenge, he is undisputed master of 
the Caucasus. 

It is said that Schamyl has published a gene- 
ral code of laws, — of course a paraphrase of the 
Koran, — which prescribes an infinite variety of 
punishments. Most of these are money fines ; 
for instance in the case of theft, a fine of double 
the value of the thing stolen, — one-half the sum 
to be given to the person robbed, as an indemni- 
fication, and the other half to be paid into the 

Gr 3 



126 



TRIBES OF THE CAUCASUS. 



military chest. Severer punishments of impri- 
sonment are also inflicted, and in cases of mur- 
der, treachery, and violation of faith, death ; ex- 
ecutions take place by the sword, either without 
loss of honour, or accompanied by a sentence of 
full ignominy. In the first case the criminal sits 
down unbound, bares his neck and breast him- 
self, says his prayers, bows his head forward, and 
thus receives the fatal stroke. In the second in- 
stance, the executioner strips his neck and bends 
his head forcibly to the block. A Muriel con- 
victed of treachery is shot or stabbed. 

In accordance with the doctrines of Soofism, 
which they have adapted to their state, the Be- 
lievers constitute four steps of the ladder which 
conducts to Allah and Paradise. Upon the high- 
est or fourth step stands alone the Murshid, the 
representative of Allah and Mohammed : this 
grade can only be occupied by one person. Upon 
the next lower, or third step, stand the represen- 
tatives of the Murshid. On the second stand 
the disciples of the Faith, the Murids. On the 
lowest or first step stand the people, the Believers, 
who adhere simply to the outward practices and 
religious observances ; whilst the three others 
participate in the theosophic doctrines and their 



SCHAMYl/s REFORMS. 



127 



mysteries, according to certain relations and gra- 
dations. 

Schamyl has divided his realm into provinces, 
and these into governments under Naibs. How 
many there are of these we do not know. Every 
five Naibdoms form a province, over which is 
placed a head, who unites both the spiritual and 
temporal power. The Naibs declare the law, 
decide disputes, watch over the fulfilment of the 
outward religious observances (the Shariat), raise 
the taxes, and summon the men to war. 

Schamyl has founded a regular system of 
taxation ; whereas in former times, according 
to the ancient Caucasian customs, the revenues 
of Kazi Moollah and Gamzad Beg consisted 
only of a share of the spoils of war, namely 
a fifth part. The tithe of each harvest was first 
and generally introduced as an impost for the 
Murshid. 

All the taxes and presents made to the mosques 
and places of pilgrimage, which formerly the 
Moollahs and Dervishes received, now go into 
the common chest, for the support of the holy 
war. The Moollahs receive a fixed payment, and 
the Dervishes are either enlisted in the army, or 
must beg. In some wealthy Naibdoms a poll- 



128 TRIBES OF THE CAUCASUS. 



tax of one silver rouble for each family has been 
introduced ; in the other districts produce to that 
amount is received. 

The property of those who fall in battle is 
given to the military chest, if there are no direct 
heirs. 

The military organization, in its general fea- 
tures, is the following. 

Every Naibdom maintains three hundred armed 
horsemen. Every ten houses in an Aoul furnish 
one horseman : the family and house from which 
he is taken is free of tax. Equipment and main- 
tenance are found by the nine other houses. All 
men, from fifteen to thirty years of age, are called 
upon to be exercised in arms, and must in time 
of need, if the country is attacked, enter Scha- 
myl's army. The warrior chosen and equipped by 
every ten houses, then takes the command of the 
rest of the militia from those families. The strict- 
est discipline prevails in the army, and disobe- 
dience is punished with death. 

Schamyl has a select body-guard of (formerly) a 
thousand men, the Murtosigators, whom he him- 
self chooses from the Murids. Valour, fidelity, 
ardour for the doctrines of Muridism, are their 
necessary qualifications. They undertake arduous 



THE MURTO SI GATORS. 



129 



duties, practise temperance, continency, and the 
strictest observance of the Shariat (prayer and 
ceremonial duties), are distinguished by their 
zeal for the spread of their religion, and the most 
unreserved obedience. In return, they are richly 
rewarded, and enjoy the highest honours and the 
greatest consideration from the people. They 
are free to retire after serving a certain number 
of years, but this is not usual. Every ten men 
have a leader, and ten such bands a captain. 
Up to this time there has never been a traitor 
found among the Murtosigators. Their unpa- 
ralleled ardour united with their coolness, is the 
terror of their enemies : never has one of them 
fallen alive into the hands of the foe. These men 
are the true support of Schamyrs powder, — in 
war, his arm and his shield, — in peace, the in- 
spired apostles of his doctrines, — everywhere the 
executors of his commands. 

Most remarkable are the orders and decora- 
tions which Schamyl has introduced since 1840, 
in outward appearance an imitation of the Eu- 
ropean and Russian ; possibly however a myste- 
rious meaning may be attached to them, as is 
so frequently the case in the East. The Orders 
are granted for distinguished bravery and severe 



130 TRIBES OE THE CAUCASUS. 

wounds, and give pecuniary advantages. There 
are three gradations : the lowest order is a round 
silver medal, the second a triangular order, and 
the third consists of silver epaulets : this last 
confers princely rank. 

In contrast to these military rewards are cer- 
tain punishments. Cowardice in battle is marked 
by a piece of felt tied round the arm or sown to 
the back : a man thus disgraced generally soon 
seeks and finds his death in battle. 



THE END. 



JOHN EDWAED TAYLOE, PBINTEB 5 
LITTLE QUEEN STEEETj LINCOLN'S INN FIELDS. 




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